492 Part VI Learning-Cognitive Theories
be placed on an individual’s behavior. If a person typically behaves altruisti-
cally for the good of others, it is because this behavior, either in the species’
evolutionary history or in the individual’s personal history, has been previ-
ously reinforced. If one behaves cowardly, it is because the rewards for
cowardice outweigh the aversive variables (Skinner, 1978).
On the dimension of causality versus teleology, Skinner’s theory of
personality is very high on causality. Behavior is caused by the person’s
history of reinforcement as well as by the species’ contingencies for survival
and by the evolution of cultures. Although people behave covertly (within
the skin) when thinking about the future, all those thoughts are determined
by past experiences (Skinner, 1990b).
The complex of environmental contingencies responsible for these
thoughts, as well as for all other behaviors, is beyond people’s awareness.
They rarely have knowledge of the relationship between all genetic and
environmental variables and their own behavior. For this reason, we rate
Skinner very high on the unconscious dimension of personality.
Although he believed that genetics plays an important role in per-
sonality development, Skinner held that human personality is largely
shaped by the environment. Because an important part of that environ-
ment is other people, Skinner’s concept of humanity inclines more toward
social than toward biological determinants of behavior. As a species,
humans have developed to their present form because of particular
environmental factors that they have encountered. Climate, geography,
and physical strength relative to other animals have all helped shape the
human species. But social environment, including family structure, early
experiences with parents, educational systems, governmental organiza-
tion, and so forth, has played an even more important role in the develop-
ment of personality,
Skinner hoped that people might be trustworthy, understanding,
warm, and empathic—characteristics that his friendly adversary Carl
Rogers (see Chapter 10) believed to be at the core of the psychologically
healthy personality. In contrast to Rogers, who believed that these pos-
itive behaviors are at least partially the result of the human capacity to
be self-directed, Skinner held that they are completely under the control
of environmental variables. Humans are not by nature good, but they
can become so if they are exposed to the proper contingencies of rein-
forcement. Although his view of the ideal person would be similar to
those of Rogers and Abraham H. Maslow (see Chapter 9), Skinner
believed that the means of becoming autonomous, loving, and self-
actualizing must not be left to chance, but should be specifically
designed into the society.
The history of a person determines behavior, and because each
human has a singular history of reinforcement contingencies, behavior and
personality are relatively unique. Genetic differences also account for
uniqueness among people. Biological and historical differences mold unique
individuals, and Skinner emphasized people’s uniqueness more than he did
their similarities.