Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 511abilities and effort based on anticipatory estimation of what is required to reach the
goals” (p. 63). The notion that people seek a state of disequilibrium is similar to
Gordon Allport’s belief that people are motivated at least as much to create tension
as to reduce it (see Chapter 12).
What processes contribute to this self-regulation? First, people possess lim-
ited ability to manipulate the external factors that feed into the reciprocal interac-
tive paradigm. Second, people are capable of monitoring their own behavior and
evaluating it in terms of both proximate and distant goals. Behavior, then, stems
from a reciprocal influence of both external and internal factors.
External Factors in Self-Regulation
External factors affect self-regulation in at least two ways. First, they provide us
with a standard for evaluating our own behavior. Standards do not stem solely from
internal forces. Environmental factors, interacting with personal influences, shape
individual standards for evaluation. By precept, we learn from parents and teachers
the value of honest and friendly behavior; by direct experience, we learn to place
more value on being warm and dry than on being cold and wet; and through observ-
ing others, we evolve a multitude of standards for evaluating self-performance. In
each of these examples, personal factors affect which standards we will learn, but
environmental forces also play a role.
Second, external factors influence self-regulation by providing the means for
reinforcement. Intrinsic rewards are not always sufficient; we also need incentives
that emanate from external factors. An artist, for example, may require more rein-
forcement than self-satisfaction to complete a large mural. Environmental support
in the form of a monetary retainer or praise and encouragement from others may
also be necessary.
The incentives to complete a lengthy project usually come from the environ-
ment and often take the form of small rewards contingent upon the completion of
subgoals. The artist may enjoy a cup of coffee after having painted the hand of
one of the subjects or break for lunch after finishing another small section of the
mural. However, self-reward for inadequate performance is likely to result in envi-
ronmental sanctions. Friends may criticize or mock the artist’s work, patrons may
withdraw financial support, or the artist may be self-critical. When performance
does not meet self-standards, we tend to withhold rewards from ourselves.
Internal Factors in Self-Regulation
External factors interact with internal or personal factors in self-regulation. Bandura
(1986, 1996) recognizes three internal requirements in the ongoing exercise of self-
influence: (1) self-observation, (2) judgmental processes, and (3) self-reaction.
Self-Observation
The first internal factor in self-regulation is self-observation of performance. We must
be able to monitor our own performance, even though the attention we give to it need
not be complete or even accurate. We attend selectively to some aspects of our behav-
ior and ignore others altogether. What we observe depends on interests and other