Chapter 17 Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory 517from holding a variety of jobs and from enjoying many kinds of recreational activ-
ities. Phobias and fears are learned by direct contact, inappropriate generalization,
and especially by observational experiences (Bandura, 1986). They are difficult to
extinguish if the phobic person simply avoids the threatening object. Unless the
fearsome object is somehow encountered, the phobia will endure indefinitely.
Bandura (1986) credits television and other news media for generating many
of our fears. Well-publicized rapes, armed robberies, or murders can terrorize a
community, causing people to live more confined lives behind locked doors. Most
people have never been raped, robbed, or intentionally injured; yet many live in
fear of being criminally assaulted. Violent criminal acts that seem random and are
most likely to instigate phobic reactions.
Once established, phobias are maintained by consequent determinants: that
is, the negative reinforcement the phobic person receives for avoiding the fear-
producing situation. For example, if people expect to receive aversive experiences
(being mugged) while walking through the city park, they will reduce their feeling
of threat by not entering the park or even going near it. In this example, dysfunc-
tional (avoidance) behavior is produced and maintained by the mutual interaction of
people’s expectancies (belief that they will be mugged), the external environment
(the city park), and behavioral factors (their prior experiences with fear).
Aggression
Aggressive behaviors, when carried to extremes, can also be dysfunctional. Ban-
dura (1986) contended that aggressive behavior is acquired through observation of
others, direct experiences with positive and negative reinforcements, training, or
instruction, and bizarre beliefs.
Phobias can interfere with daily functioning. © Kevin Landwer-Johan/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty
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