Chapter 18 Rotter and Mischel: Cognitive Social Learning Theory 533of equal value, then the one with the greatest expectation of reinforcement is
most likely to occur. More specifically, if reinforcements from robbing the
cashier, buying the business, and ordering a dinner are all valued equally, then
the response that is most likely to produce a reinforcement has the highest
behavior potential.
Rotter employed a broad definition of behavior, which refers to any response,
implicit or explicit, that can be observed or measured directly or indirectly. This
comprehensive concept allowed Rotter to include as behavior such hypothetical
constructs as generalizing, problem solving, thinking, analyzing, and so forth.
Expectancy
Expectancy (E) refers to a person’s expectation that some specific reinforcement
or set of reinforcements will occur in a given situation. The probability is not
determined by the individual’s history of reinforcements, as Skinner contended,
but is subjectively held by the person. History, of course, is a contributing factor,
but so too are unrealistic thinking, expectations based on lack of information, and
fantasies, so long as the person sincerely believes that a given reinforcement or
group of reinforcements are contingent on a particular response.
Expectancies can be general or specific. Generalized expectancies (GEs) are
learned through previous experiences with a particular response or similar responses
and are based on the belief that certain behaviors will be followed by positive
reinforcement. For example, college students whose previous hard work has been
reinforced by high grades will have a generalized expectancy of future reward and
will work hard in a variety of academic situations.
Specific expectancies are designated as E 9 (E prime). In any situation the
expectancy for a particular reinforcement is determined by a combination of a
specific expectancy (E 9 ) and the generalized expectancy (GE). For example, a
student may have general expectancy that a given level of academic work will be
rewarded by good grades but may believe that an equal amount of hard work in a
French class will go unrewarded.
Total expectancy of success is a function of both one’s generalized expec-
tancy and one’s specific expectancy. Total expectancy partially determines the
amount of effort people will expend in pursuit of their goals. A person with low
total expectancy for success in obtaining a prestigious job is not likely to apply
for the position, whereas a person with high expectancy for success will exert much
effort and persist in the face of setbacks to achieve goals that appear possible.
Reinforcement Value
Another variable in the prediction formula is reinforcement value (RV), which is
the preference a person attaches to any reinforcement when the probabilities for
the occurrence of a number of different reinforcements are all equal.
Reinforcement value can be illustrated by a woman’s interactions with a
vending machine that contains several possible selections, each costing the same.
The woman approaches the machine able and willing to pay 75 cents in order to
receive a snack. The vending machine is in perfect working condition, so there is