582 Part VI Learning-Cognitive Theories
On the other hand, a construction system that is too loose or flexible leads
to disorganization, an inconsistent pattern of behavior, and a transient set of values.
Such an individual is too easily “shaken by the impact of unexpected minor daily
events” (Kelly, 1955, p. 80).
Although Kelly did not use traditional labels in describing psychopathology,
he did identify four common elements in most human disturbance: threat, fear,
anxiety, and guilt.Threat
People experience threat when they perceive that the stability of their basic constructs
is likely to be shaken. Kelly (1955) defined threat as “the awareness of imminent
comprehensive change in one’s core structures” (p. 489). One can be threatened by
either people or events, and sometimes the two cannot be separated. For example,
during psychotherapy, clients often feel threat from the prospect of change, even change
for the better. If they see a therapist as a possible instigator of change, they will view
that therapist as a threat. Clients frequently resist change and construe their therapist’s
behavior in a negative fashion. Such resistance and “negative transference” are means
of reducing threat and maintaining existing personal constructs (Stojnov & Butt, 2002).Fear
By Kelly’s definition, threat involves a comprehensive change in a person’s core
structures. Fear, on the other hand, is more specific and incidental. Kelly (1955)
illustrated the difference between threat and fear with the following example. A man
may drive his car dangerously as the result of anger or exuberance. These impulses
become threatening when the man realizes that he may run over a child or be arrested
for reckless driving and end up as a criminal. In this case, a comprehensive portion
of his personal constructs is threatened. However, if he is suddenly confronted with
the probability of crashing his car, he will experience fear. Threat demands a com-
prehensive restructuring—fear, an incidental one. Psychological disturbance results
when either threat or fear persistently prevents a person from feeling secure.Anxiety
Kelly (1955) defined anxiety as “the recognition that the events with which one
is confronted lie outside the range of convenience of one’s construct system”
(p. 495). People are likely to feel anxious when they are experiencing a new event.
For example, when Arlene, the engineering student, was bargaining with the used-
car dealer, she was not sure what to do or say. She had never before negotiated
over such a large amount of money, and therefore this experience was outside the
range of her convenience. As a consequence, she felt anxiety, but it was a normal
level of anxiety and did not result in incapacitation.
Pathological anxiety exists when a person’s incompatible constructs can no
longer be tolerated and the person’s construction system breaks down. Recall that
Kelly’s fragmentation corollary assumes that people can evolve construction
subsystems that are incompatible with one another. For example, when a person
who has erected the rigid construction that all people are trustworthy is blatantly
cheated by a colleague, that person may for a time tolerate the ambiguity of the