42 Part II Psychodynamic Theories
is always characterized by repressed homosexual feelings toward the persecutor.
Freud believed that the persecutor is inevitably a former friend of the same sex,
although sometimes people may transfer their delusions onto a person of the oppo-
site sex. When homosexual impulses become too powerful, persecuted paranoiacs
defend themselves by reversing these feelings and then projecting them onto their
original object. For men, the transformation proceeds as follows. Instead of saying,
“I love him,” the paranoid person says, “I hate him.” Because this also produces
too much anxiety, he says, “He hates me.” At this point, the person has disclaimed
all responsibility and can say, “I like him fine, but he’s got it in for me.” The
central mechanism in all paranoia is projection with accompanying delusions of
jealousy and persecution.Introjection
Whereas projection involves placing an unwanted impulse onto an external object,
introjection is a defense mechanism whereby people incorporate positive qualities
of another person into their own ego. For example, an adolescent may introject or
adopt the mannerisms, values, or lifestyle of a movie star. Such an introjection
gives the adolescent an inflated sense of self-worth and keeps feelings of inferior-
ity to a minimum. People introject characteristics that they see as valuable and that
will permit them to feel better about themselves.
Freud (1926/1959a) saw the resolution of the Oedipus complex as the prototype
of introjection. During the Oedipal period, the young child introjects the authority
and values of one or both parents—an introjection that sets into motion the beginning
of the superego. When children introject what they perceive to be their parents’
values, they are relieved from the work of evaluating and choosing their own beliefs
and standards of conduct. As children advance through the latency period of devel-
opment (approximately ages 6 to 12), their superego becomes more personalized;
that is, it moves away from a rigid identification with parents. Nevertheless, people
of any age can reduce the anxiety associated with feelings of inadequacy by adopt-
ing or introjecting the values, beliefs, and mannerisms of other people.Sublimation
Each of these defense mechanisms serves the individual by protecting the ego from
anxiety, but each is of dubious value from society’s viewpoint. According to Freud
(1917/1963), one mechanism—sublimation—helps both the individual and the social
group. Sublimation is the repression of the genital aim of Eros by substituting a
cultural or social aim. The sublimated aim is expressed most obviously in creative
cultural accomplishments such as art, music, and literature, but more subtly, it is part
of all human relationships and all social pursuits. Freud (1914/1953) believed that
the art of Michelangelo, who found an indirect outlet for his libido in painting and
sculpting, was an excellent example of sublimation. In most people, sublimations
combine with direct expression of Eros and result in a kind of balance between social
accomplishments and personal pleasures. Most of us are capable of sublimating a
part of our libido in the service of higher cultural values, while at the same time
retaining sufficient amounts of the sexual drive to pursue individual erotic pleasure.