The Spread of Buddhism

250 martin lehnert

scripture with regard to terminological and doctrinal divergences.

Hence, their reference to “Indian” (i.e., translated textual) authorities

was not only signi cant for legitimatising purposes but also for establish-

ing and contextualising new exegetical as well as pragmatic approaches.

This seems to be particularly true for Tantric Buddhism in China. Not

only the performance of Sanskrit sounds in mantric speech and the use

of the Siddham script^10 for meditation and visualisation but also special

forms of word and sentence construction—as for example the nomi-

nal complex sentences in translated scriptures which follow syntactical

models of Sanskrit against the demand on intelligibility—reminded a

Chinese practitioner that he was actually quoting accommodated and

estranged phrases, words and signi ers belonging to the realm of the

divine.

A signi cant criterion of Tantric Buddhist praxis is the appropriation

of ritual performance and language in respect of state formation, crisis

of social order, and state protection, employing distinct expressions of

what may be reservedly categorised as apotropaic ritualism. Its prag-

matics point to a deliberately performative approach towards salva-

tion, exceeding the repertoire of Mahyna praxis at least since the

extensive transmission work of ubhakarasiha (Chin. Shanwuwei

; 637–735), Vajrabodhi (Chin. Jingangzhi ; 671–741)

and especially Amoghavajra (Chin. Bukong ; 705–774),^11 whose

career at the imperial court was remarkable even by Tang-period

Buddhist standards.

Therefore, in the pages that follow, I will attempt to contextualise

only a few aspects that fostered and limited the spread of a praxis,

introduced by distinct individuals at the Tang- and Song-court, and

highlight signi cant functions of the “secret teachings” by re ecting

upon some central points of attraction, social functions by which

Tantric Buddhism became a tempting praxis. That does not imply

the supposition of a self-conscious “Chinese school” or even a

culture-crossing tradition of “secret teachings” pacing its way from

(^10) Skt. siddham means “perfected”; the Siddham script is a syllabic alphabet written
in horizontal lines from left to right. The consonants have the inherent vowel “a” that
can be muted. Vowels are written by using diacritical marks above, below, before or
after the consonant they belong to, or as independent letters. Siddham was used in East
Asian esoteric Buddhism to write down mantric speech and to copy stras in Sanskrit,
practiced as exercises of calligraphy and meditation; cf. van Gulik 1980, pp. 72–79. 11
For their biographies, see Chou 1945, pp. 241–332.
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