268 martin lehnertfocused on Tang and pre-Tang translations. Chan denominations that
traditionally claimed to be founded on direct intuitional transmission,
as in opposition to textual studies and—which was the special case of
the “secret teachings”—emphasised enactment of ritual manuals (sup-
posedly) based on Indian sources, attempted to further ameliorate their
own status by representing their proper aesthetics and ritual thought
as more commensurate with Confucian and Daoist traditions than
any other form of Buddhist praxis. The growing Chan in uence over
Buddhism in China became also apparent in the superimposition of
Chan monastic rules on the Indian monastic codices (Skt. vinaya) that
had been valid since the Northern and Southern Dynasties period,^76
and in the merging of denominations such as Tiantai and Huayan
into institutional Chan.
The scholar-monk Zanning (919–1001) argued for a separation
of Buddhist praxis and learning from any Indian context, and tried
to construe a Chinese Buddhist antiquity as a proof of validity and
commensurability with Confucian and Daoist traditions. Representing
Buddhism as deeply rooted in Chinese history and disapproving the
contributions of Indian monks, Zanning hoped to consolidate the sig-
ni cance of Buddhism by emphasising Chan and its Chinese “origin”.^77
However, his aim to position Buddhism as an integrated part of the Con-
fucian revival was rejected by Confucian of cials immediately.^78 Hence,
the “Indian” appeal of the Tantric pantheon, Sanskrit syllables in dhra
practice as well as the ostentatious luxury of rituals gradually became
obstacles for any further promulgation of the “secret teachings”—
besides the fact that the signi cantly enlarged versions and newly trans-
lated Tantric scriptures such as the Hevajratantra (Tantra of Hevajra)
or the Guhyasamjatantra (Tantra of Secret Assembly) required thorough
textual study as a preliminary to any ritual implementation. In fact
even the Indian translators failed to adequately express the ritual
thought of the Anuttarayogatantra (Tantra of Unsurpassed Mystic Union)
expounded in these scriptures, and considerately omitted teachings of
sexual yoga.^79
As the textual and doctrinal supply from India was no longer regarded
to be essential for Buddhist praxis, in uential Chinese Buddhists peti-(^76) Foulk 1993, p. 148.
(^77) Wang 1984, pp. 277–289.
(^78) Welter 1999, pp. 36–47.
(^79) Sen 2002, pp. 56–57; 2003, pp. 126–132.
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