the later spread of buddhism in tibet 365
teaching was controversial in intellectual discourse. Additionally, we
will take a closer look at the rNying-ma-pa and the non-Buddhist Bon
tradition from the same perspective. These fall inside the scope of this
paper insofar as both traditions developed their identities as school
systems in reaction to the “new” schools, albeit they draw their roots
back to earlier Tibetan history.
4.3.1. The gCod School
The main representatives of this school are Pha-dam-pa sangs-rgyas
(11th/12th century) and the (female) yogin Ma-gcig lab-sgron-ma
(1055–1149). The former is said to have been an Indian yogin who visited
Tibet several times. During his third visit he met with Ma-gcig who
became his pupil and later systemised his teachings. Pha-dam-pa sangs-
rgyas taught a special kind of tantric ritual called gcod, what literally
means “cutting through”. The gcod ritual is a highly complex procedure
involving a visualised self-sacri ce to erce esh-eating demons.^50 It
is preferably executed at night at spooky places—cemeteries or other
locations believed to be frequented by dangerous demons and spirits.
After initial ritual actions the gcod practitioner summons the demons
living in the place and invites them to consume his body. He then
visualises his own body being cut into gory pieces and devoured by the
assembled demons. This is regarded as an act of generosity, one of the
major Mahyna virtues. The deeper effect aimed at by the ritual is
the elimination of every aspect of clinging to an ego. By offering one’s
own body one “cuts through” the process of discursive thinking (rnam-
rtog) which is responsible for the illusions of worldly existence.
The tradition was mainly kept up by free-roving yogins or small com-
munities living in scattered hermitages. Many of them became known
for their unconventional behaviour. Certain aspects of the theoretical
background of the gcod ritual have continuously provoked attacks against
the gCod tradition by doxographers of the other schools. Especially
dGe-lugs-pa authors seem to have been annoyed by the teachings of the
gCod school.^51 Nevertheless, the gcod ritual was assumed by adherents of
(^50) Different versions of the ritual are described in Evanz-Wentz 1960. Additional
information on the gCod tradition and more recent results of research can be obtained
from Kollmar-Paulenz 1993 and 1998. The former includes a German translation of
the only known chos-’byung written from the gCod perspective, the Zhi-byed dang gCod-
yul-gyi chos-’byung rin-po-che’i phreng-ba thar-pa’i rgyan by Khams-smyon ’Jigs-bral chos-kyi
seng-ge (19th century).
(^51) For example Klong-rdol-bla-ma Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang (1719–1794) who polemicises