the history of buddhism among the mongols 421
Mongolian monasteries had permanent exchanges between each other
and with Tibet. The network of relationships and dependencies was,
above all, closely intertwined, because the high Lamas very often stood
in a teacher-disciple relationship and were connected to each other
in a peculiar way through consecrations and vows. Thus, the second
Beijing lCang-skya Qututu took the vow as novice from the second
Pa-chen Rin-po-che Blo-bzang-ye-shes-dpal-bzang-po (1663–1737)
in the Tibetan bKra-shis-lhun-po monastery in 1735. In 1771, the
second lCang-skya Qututu took the vow of novice from the third
rJe-btsun-dam-pa Qututu Ye-shes-bstan-pa’i-nyi-ma (1758–1773), the
Great Lama of Northern Mongolia, who was of Tibetan descent, in
the Southern Mongolian Dolonor.^178
11.1. Growing Discontent with the Moral and Economic Corruption
of Higher ClergymenIn the course of time, the old malady that had already contributed
to the end of Mongolian rule over China set in anew: the moral and
economic corruption of higher clergymen, coupled with the corruption
of princes and the lack of education of simple monks and laymen. The
system of the reincarnated lamas, the Qubilan, who enjoyed important
economic privileges, continued to be expanded. During the period of
autonomy (1911–1924), there were seven real Qututus—reincarnated
Lamas—and forty other high Lamas that had been granted the title
Qututu alone in the capital of Northern Mongolia. Many of these
Qututus were false saints who cared little about the religious and
worldly concerns of their protégés. The highest saints themselves, the
rJe-btsun-dam-pa Qututus, who all had the honori c name “The
Holy”, Boda, provided inglorious examples.^179 The seventh Boda
Ngag-dbang-chos-kyi-dbyang-phyug-’phrin-las-rgya-mtsho (1850–1869)
was a drinker and loved sexual pleasures that were forbidden for him as
high dGe-lugs-pa clergyman. Even worse was his successor, the eighth
Boda Ngag-dbang-blo-bzang-chos-kyi-nyi-ma-bstan-’dzin-dbang-phyug
(1869–1924). He also was a drinker, suffered from syphilis and had two
of cial wives successively.^180
(^178) Kämpfe 1976, pp. 90, 111.
(^179) Chapter 8 in Pozdneyev 1971, pp. 321–392 deals with the lives of the rJe-
btsun-dam-pa Qututus. On the names, portraits and short biographies of the nine
Bodas, see “Mongolyn esön Bogdyn tuxaj” (“About the nine Bodas”) in Bilgijn zul
1999, pp. 2–3. 180
Bawden 1989, pp. 165ff.