422 klaus sagaster
In the nineteenth century, the discontent with the clergymen
increased. The monks criticised the Lamas in sharp words, who in their
opinion no longer obeyed the precepts of their religion and exploited
the common people. When the desultory resistance eventually came
together in a reform movement in the early twentieth century, it was
already far too late.^181
- Independence of Outer Mongolia—Liberation from
Manchu Rule and National Renaissance
In 1911 the Qing rulership collapsed. Outer Mongolia declared its
independence in the form of a monarchy, led by the rJe-btsun-dam-
pa Qututu, who received the of cial title Boda Gegen, the “Holy
Illustrious”.^182 This choice was a clever one, as the eighth Boda was,
despite his moral weakness, a strong personality who enjoyed respect
both of the nobility and of the common people.^183 The liberation from
Manchu-Chinese rule was seen as an act of a national renaissance
that found its special expression in the person of the Boda. Although
he was a Tibetan by birth, from a theological viewpoint he was none
other than the rst rJe-btsun-dam-pa of the seventeenth century in a
new incarnation, and, thus, a descendent from inggis Khan. Of cially,
however, another claim was made: the governmental motto of the new
king of Mongolia was: “The One who is elevated by many” (Olan-a
ergügdegsen). According to the Buddhist conception, “The One hon-
oured by many” (Mah samata) was the rst king of mankind. The
governmental motto of Boda Gegen inferred a promising new start.
- The People’s Republic of Mongolia and
The Separation of State and Church
This new start, however, did not last long. The people’s revolution of
1921 did not lead to the abdication of the king, but when the Boda
Gegen died in 1924, the monarchy was dissolved and the People’s
(^181) Bawden 1989, pp. 166ff.
(^182) Zlatkin 1964, pp. 87–89; Rupen 1964, p. 61; Baabar 1999, p. 136; Barkmann
1999, p. 97. 183
On the Eight rJe-btsun-dam-pa Qututu/Boda Gegen, see Bawden 1989, pp.
195–196.