continental south asia and the islands 13kua, it was reached by sea from China in a little over one month.^18
All authorities agree that this was the Buddhist state of “rivijaya in
eastern Sumatra.
To-p’o-teng: According to Chiu T’ang shu 197:3a, it was situated
2 months’ sea voyage south of Lin-yi. It bordered on K’o-ling in the
east and on the great ocean in the north. Schafer^19 surmises that this
might be Sumatra.
K’o-ling: According to Chiu T’ang shu 197:3a, it was situated on an
island in the south. According to Hsin T’ang shu 222C:3b and Wen-hsien
t’ung-k’ao 332:16a, it was situated in the southern ocean facing P’o-li
in the east and [To-]p’o-teng in the west. Both texts equate K’o-ling
with She-p’o. Hirth and Rockhill^20 conclude the K’o-ling^21 was west-
ern Java and propose^22 that the name is a transscription of Kalinga
in India, from where the Hindu settlers of Java had for the most part
come. They observe, however that Gerini places the country on the
Malay Peninsula. Schafer calls the state Kalinga.^23 It may well be that
K’o-ling was on Java, in which case it was a predecessor of She-p’o.
Their dates overlap, however. K’o-ling appears in the Chinese sources
from 640 to 860-874, She-p’o from 820.
She-p’o: According to Sung shih 489:15b and Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao
332:14b, it was situated in the southern ocean. According to Sung
shih 489:17b and Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao 332:15a, it had an old enmity
with San-fo-ch’i. According to Chao Ju-kua, it was reached from
Ch’üan-chou after a sea voyage of about a month.^24 All authorities
agree that this was Java. In that case, She-p’o stands for the Hindu
kingdom of Mataram and its sucessors, which indeed were hostile to
the Buddhist San-fo-ch’i.
Po-ni: According to Sung shih 489:18a-18b and Wen-hsien t’ung-k’ao
332:18b, it was situated southwest^25 [of China] in the great ocean,
45 days’ journey from She-p’o, 40 days from San-fo-ch’i, and 30
days from Champa. Hirth and Rockhill^26 conclude that Po-ni was
(^18) Hirth and Rockhill, Chao Ju-kua, p.60.
(^19) Golden Peaches, p.136.
(^20) Chau Ju-kua, p.273.
(^21) They call it Ho-ling.
(^22) Chao Ju-kua, p.78-79, note 1.
(^23) Golden Peaches, pp.83, 101, 103, 245.
(^24) Hirth and Rockhill, Chao Ju-kua, p.75.
(^25) Chao Ju-kua says southeast. See Hirth and Rockhill p.155.
(^26) Chao Ju-kua, p.158, note 1, and p.280.