602 liao
through T’ang, i.e. 589 to 906, when Chinese superiority was never in
doubt. The second can be dated 907 to 1005, i.e. the Five Dynasties
and Sung until the treaty of Shan-yüan, when the Khitan/Liao State
outgrew China in power. The third lasted from 1005 to about 1115,
when relations settled down to diplomatic routine and the superiority
of Liao was unchallenged. The final collapse of Liao came in 1125.
During the first period, 589 to 906, the Khitan posed no serious
threat to China, even though they invaded it 696 to 697, fought minor
engagements in the first half of the 740’s, defeated An Lu-shan in
751, and looted border areas in 788. On the contrary, they were a
potential asset to the T’ang as a counterweight to the Hsi. In a classi-
cal diplomatic endeavour, the Chinese attempted to form an alliance
with a people behind a possible enemy. But this policy met with no
great success. The Khitan were divided, some favouring China and
others preferring an alliance with the Turks. 16 Khitan chiefs visited
the T’ang court between 629 and 830.^206 Chinese official and noble
titles were conferred on 15 chiefs from Sui until 842. One chief was
granted the imperial surname of Li in 648. Emperor Hsüan-tsung
recognized at least seven chiefs as kings in 715, 718, 722, 725, 735,
745, and 746. Above all, Hsüan-tsung sought to improve relations by
marrying Chinese princesses to prominent Khitan. In 717, the Princess
of Yung-lo was married to Li Shih-huo. When it became known in
718 that he had died, Hsüan-tsung suspended the court for mourning
and conferred on him the posthumous title of Specially Advanced. In
722, the Princess of Yen commandery was married to Li Yü-yü. After
Yü-yü’s death in 723, she married his younger brother T’u-yü. But in
725, the couple was forced to flee to China. In 726, the Princess of
Tung-hua was married to Li Shao-ku. After he had been killed, she
fled to China in 730. In 745, the Princess of Ching-lo was married to
Li Huai-chieh. He murdered her the same year. Hostility to China
was obviously strong among the Khitan. Chinese attempts to turn
their territory into an imaginary Area Command were mere wishful
thinking. The Khitan never submitted to the T’ang, They preserved
their independence from the Chinese, although not always from the
Turks and Uighurs.
Little is known of the purpose of the Khitan missions to Sui and
T’ang. In 628, they offered an alliance against the Turks. They con-
(^206) One of these, K’o-t’u-yü, was received twice, in 722 and 726.