1055
zakir-shumi I of Babylon,^29 and Esarhaddon’s treaty with Urtaku of
Elam.^30 The available evidence suggests that such treaties, which
apparently were only concluded between major powers, involved full
parity of both parties, with no economic obligations on either one.3.1.2 Alliance Pacts
Examples of alliance pacts are Assurbanipal’s treaties with Gyges of
Lydia and his son Ardys,^31 Esarhaddon’s treaty with the Scythian
king, Protothyes,^32 and Sargon’s and Esarhaddon’s treaties with Median
city rulers.^33 All known treaties of this type were concluded at the
initiative of the non-Assyrian party, mostly in the hope of short-term
military or political gains. In essence, such treaties were tantamount
to vassal treaties, for the “beneficiary” was obligated to pay an annual
tribute and visit the imperial court regularly.3.1.3 Vassal Treaties
Vassal treaties proper involved annual payment of tribute and reg-
ular visits to the imperial court. They were imposed, always at
Assyrian initiative, on Assyrianized foreign nobility to be returned,
at a suitable opportunity, as Assyrian puppets to their home countries
not yet incorporated into the provincial system (see 4.2.1.3 below).3.1.4 Allegiance Pacts
Allegiance pacts concerned royal succession and were imposed on
both Assyrian citizenry and vassal nations. Such pacts did not differ
formally from other treaty types and are therefore to be taken as
political agreements rather than simply as loyalty oaths.^34 There is rea-
son to believe that the eight specimens of allegiance pacts imposed on
Median vassals at the same time functioned as vassal treaties proper.^35(^29) SAA 2, no. 1.
(^30) SAA 2, xvii–xviii (not extant, but referred to in numerous contemporary sources).
(^31) Streck Asb., 20–22.
(^32) SAA 4, no. 20, discussed in SAA 2, xix.
(^33) SAA 2, xxx–xxxi; ABL 129 and 1008.
(^34) See the discussion in SAA 2, xv, xxiv, and xxix–xxxi. Since all Assyrian treaties,
though meant to remain valid in perpetuity, were phrased as bilateral agreements
between parties specified by name, succession treaties were needed to extend the
validity of the treaties to the next generation.
(^35) See SAA 2, xxxi. Liverani’s proposal (“The Medes.. .”) to take these texts as
loyalty oaths imposed on Median bodyguards at the Assyrian court is contradicted
by the preambles to the texts, which explicitly define them as agreements with the
relevant city-states. Note also that these agreements were to remain valid in all per-
petuity (SAA 2 6: 10, 382–84, and 393–96).
westbrook_f28_1047-1066 8/27/03 1:37 PM Page 1055