lesser individuals might also possess land and estates, which, while
perhaps fundamentally belonging to the state or temple (a usufruct),^248
came to be considered, for practical purposes, the property of those
individuals.^249 Our information concerning such lands tends to be
restricted to enigmatic terms.^250 Land may be transferred through
inheritance^251 or gift, but we have no actual examples of land sales,
to my knowledge (although allusions to such sales, fisw, may possi-
bly be found).^252
A rather elaborate bureaucracy handled questions of land and
land tenure.^253 There are “field scribes,” possibly responsible for
land survey and similar matters,^254 while a special office, the §ry tb'/
¢tm, dealt with issues of land ownership.^255 A royal document ('-nswt)
may have been required in order to acquire land (Third to Fourth
Dynasty).^2566.1.2 Metjen (Third to Fourth Dynasty) already mentions com-
pensation of land in such a way as to imply the ability to transfer
the rights freely (Urk. 1, 2, 8–11).^257 Scholars have underscored the
constant interflow between royal and private mortuary cult prop-
erty.^258 There seems to be good evidence for at least small-scale pri-
vate trading and enterprise.^259 It is unclear to what extent royal
craftsmen were involved in private mortuary provisions.^260(^248) Eyre, “Work.. .,” 34. For a discussion of ≈t, pr-≈.tproperty as usufruct, see
Boochs, “Niessbrauchs.. .” See Goedicke, Rechtsinschriften.. ., 58, on the distinction
between property connected with office and the office itself.
(^249) Goedicke, Rechtsinschriften..., 188; Eyre, “Work.. .,” 23.
(^250) Lexicographical problems abound. Goedicke suggests, for example, that “n'.t
is a type of legal institution connected with land or land ownership (Königliche
Dokumente.. ., 124); that s¢t may have the special meaning of ownerless land (167);
and that “'is a “share of land being the property of someone” and not a term for
a type of document (“Juridical,” 32).
(^251) But cf. Müller-Wöllermann, “Alte Reich.. .,” 35.
(^252) Eyre, “Peasants.. .,” 377; Harari and Menu, “Notion.. .”; Gutgesell, “Ent-
stehung.. .,” 72. According to Menu, Recherches.. ., 3–4, land comes from the king
and through inheritance, but there are no transactions between individuals.
(^253) Grunert, “Eigentum...”
(^254) Goedicke, Königliche Dokumente.. ., 166.
(^255) Ibid., 169 (uncertain).
(^256) Seidl, Einführung.. ., 47 and 61.
(^257) Ibid., 46. See also Goedicke, Rechtsinschriften.. ., 24; Roth, “Organization...,”
116; Eyre, “Work.. .,” 33; Helck, Wirtschaftsgeschichte.. ., 135.
(^258) Eyre, “Work.. .,” 23.
(^259) Cf. Kuhrt, Near East.. ., 1: 150; Kemp apud Trigger et al., Social History...,81.
(^260) Eyre, “Work.. .,” 21.
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