equality between rulers. “Brother” was used similarly at Ebla to
describe the relationship between the ruler of Ebla and the ruler of
›amazi.^223.1.2 The two surviving third millennium treaties, between the rulers
of Ebla and Abarsal and between Naramsin of Akkade and an Elamite
king, seem, in the form we have them, to be unequal treaties, the
onus of most of the stipulations falling on Abarsal and the Elamite
king, respectively. The treaty conditions reported in Eanatum’s Stela
of the Vultures likewise obligate only the ruler of Umma. Our knowl-
edge of the historical context of all three documents suggests that
these treaties are indeed between unequal parties, but the possibil-
ity remains that third millennium treaty documents, like those known
from the Old Babylonian period, recorded the obligations of one
party only^23 and that the obligations of Ebla, Akkade and Lagash
were recorded on separate documents.3.2 The two surviving treaty documents are inscribed on clay tablets.
The Ebla treaty is written in the peculiar mixture of Sumerograms,
Semitograms, and phonetic Semitic characteristic of the Ebla archive;
the Naramsin treaty is in Elamite. Both are very difficult to under-
stand. The Stela of the Vultures, in Sumerian, seems to preserve the
text of a treaty document and a description of the ratification pro-
cedure, to which is appended an inscription dedicating the stela itself.
The Ebla treaty is couched in the third person, with periodic sec-
ond person instructions to the ruler of Abarsal. The Naramsin treaty
consists primarily of first person declarations to Naramsin by the
Elamite ruler, who refers to Naramsin either in the second person
(“you,” “your”) or by name. The Stela of the Vultures is in the third
person, except for the first person oaths sworn by the ruler of Umma.3.3 The treaty procedure itself consisted of swearing to the provi-
sions contained in the treaty documents. The Naramsin treaty is pre-
sented as one long oath sworn by the Elamite ruler, and the ruler(^22) Michalowski, Letters.. ., no. 2. “Brother” also appears in the dossier regarding
relations between Ebla, Hadu, and Mari (Pettinato, Ebla, 241ff.). In the treaty
between Ebla and Abarsal, however, “brother” seems to denote coconspirators in
a potential rebellion (Edzard, “Vertrag.. .,” §19).
(^23) Charpin, “Représentants.. .,” 144.
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