A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law

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military success was inevitably understood as a sign of divine favor,

there was no perceived contradiction between the two remedies.

3.6 Commemoration of the Lagash-Umma treaty was marked by

the erection of the Stela of the Vultures by Eanatum. The Naramsin

treaty was marked by the erection of a statue of Naramsin and pos-

sibly also by deposit of the treaty in a temple by the Elamite party.

4. C I L

In addition to the specific stipulations of the attested treaties, cer-

tain general notions and practices relevant to legal obligations between

states can be deduced from the treaties and other sources of the

third millennium.

4.1 The Abarsal treaty is our best source for the concept of “cit-

izen,” meaning, in the international arena, a person under the author-

ity and protection of a given state or ruler.^28 Issues arise between

states regarding the rights of citizens of one state when in another,

especially the rights of merchants, regarding crimes committed by

citizens of one state against citizens of another, and the return of

fugitives. These issues usually must have been regulated by custom-

ary law; the Abarsal treaty seems to skew matters in Ebla’s favor.

4.2 International borders were inviolable, but adjustable by treaty,

and land could be granted by one sovereign to another.^29 Royal

inscriptions from Lagash frequently mention official boundary stones

marking the border with Umma, but none has been recovered.

4.3 Communication between states was effected by diplomatic envoys,

often bearing gifts. Custom and treaty governed the envoys’ recep-

tion and freedom of movement.^30

one attested by the Stela of the Vultures. See Cooper, Reconstructing History...;

Pettinato, “Il conflitto...”

(^28) The issue of citizenship is also taken up in the texts discussed by Pettinato
and D’Agostino, “Proposta.. .,” with earlier bibliography.
(^29) See the texts discussed in ibid. for land granted by the king of Ebla to the
queen of Emar.
(^30) See, e.g., Biga, “Rapporti diplomatici.. .” and Steiner, “Lú.. .” For the sparse
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