contracts (mortuary endowments).^15 The lengthy tomb biographies of
such notables as the nomarchs of Beni Hasan (Twelfth Dynasty) also
contain occasional statements pertaining to legal matters and admin-
istration.^16 Texts originally written on papyrus were sometimes impor-
tant enough to inscribe on temple or chapel walls, an act which
naturally lent increased security to the legal document.^17
As in the Old Kingdom, titles are a rich but problematic source
for the study of the Middle Kingdom legal system.^181.5 The major Middle Kingdom literary texts such as The Story
of Sinuhe,^19 Papyrus Westcar,^20 Merikare,^21 Instruction of Amenemhet,^22
and the Eloquent Peasant^23 also contain legal material. However,
scholars dispute the historical veracity of such sources, which, in any
case, are seldom specific.^24
In a passage vividly describing a society in chaos, the speaker in
The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage, for example, exclaims: “Lo,
the laws (hp.w) of the chamber (prison?) are thrown out, men walk
on them in the streets, beggars tear them up in the alleys.”^25
A few compositions preserved in later copies may illuminate details
of Middle Kingdom law and legal administration. The Duties of the
Vizier, although found in Eighteenth Dynasty tombs, has been under-
stood by some scholars to reflect the administration of the later
Middle Kingdom.^261.6 Religious compositions, such as the Coffin Texts, sometimes
contain statements relevant to the history of law.^27(^15) Théodoridès, “Contrats.. .” See also Harari, “Verification.. .”; Helck, Wirt-
schaftsgeschichte.. ., 169–70; Spalinger, “Redistributive Pattern.. .”; Allam, “Quenebete.. .,”
42–43.
(^16) See, e.g., Allam, “Quenebete.. .,” 22–23; Lloyd, “The Great Inscription...”
(^17) See Helck, Wirtschaftsgeschichte.. ., 170; Théodoridès, “Sixième.. .,” 455.
(^18) Franke, “Problème.. .”; Ward, Index.. .; Quirke, Administration.. ., 85 (“king’s-
acquaintance”).
(^19) Parant, Sinouhe.. .; see also Westendorf, “Wasser.. .”; Théodoridès, “Amnestie...”
(^20) Lorton, “Treatment.. .,” 14–16.
(^21) Ibid., 12–13.
(^22) See, e.g., Anthes, “Legal...”
(^23) Shupak, “New Source.. .,” 2.
(^24) Versteeg, “Law.. .,” 40–41.
(^25) Admonitions 6/9–11, Lichtheim, AEL 1, 155.
(^26) Kemp apud Trigger et al., Social History.. ., 84. Van den Boorn, Vizier.. ., 2,
257, 334, 375.
(^27) Lorton, “Treatment.. .,” 51. See also Mrsich, “Ein fimyt-prRubrum der Sargtexte
(S754)”; Assmann, “When Justice Fails,” 152.
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