of nm ̇.w, “free persons” of the land of the pharaoh.^274 This change
of status, initiated by the woman herself, enables them to inherit her
property.
On the basis of the ability to alienate property and personal free-
dom, Allam separates New Kingdom society into “fully free persons”
(nm ̇); less free (e.g., emancipated slaves or prisoners, who do not
have unlimited ability to alienate property or personal mobility); serfs
(“Hörige”);^275 and slaves.^276 Still, as he emphasizes, these divisions are
by no means water-tight.4.1.1 The common New Kingdom phrase 'n¢.t n Nw.t (“living one
of the city”), often rendered “citizeness,”^277 also seems to denote a
free person of middling rank. It may replace a more usual title.4.1.2 Foreign captives enjoyed widely varying levels of status, rang-
ing from virtual slavery to that of military man or colonist with some
independence.^2784.2 Gender and Age
While males appear more often in legal texts, there seem to be few
explicit restrictions on the rights of women.^279 Women certainly act
less frequently as witnesses, and there are scarcely any examples of
female judges.^280
Women could acquire and alienate property, and enjoy usufruct
without visible limitations.^281 In P. Cairo 65739, women purchase(^274) Gardiner, “Adoption Extraordinary,” 24.
(^275) On the condition of the peasants in the New Kingdom, see Eyre, “Work...,”
207–8.
(^276) “Bevölkerungsklassen,” col. 774.
(^277) Cf. Allam, Hieratische Ostraka.. ., 60; Janssen, Village Varia.. ., 82; ’ernÿ, “Will
of Naunakhte.. .,” 48; Janssen, “Economic History.. .,” 144. See also Kruchten,
Horemheb.. ., 133; Gasse, Données.. ., 47.
(^278) Eyre, “Work.. .,” 204. See also Eyre, “Crime.. .,” 96; Bresciani, Egyptians...,
231; Spalinger, “Will of Senimose.. .,” 638.
(^279) See Johnson, “Legal Status.. .”; Harari, “Capacité...,” 53–54. See further
Allam, “Familie.. .,” 25; Toivari, “Man versus Woman...”
(^280) In O. Gardiner 150, two women are in the court; see Allam, Hieratische
Ostraka.. ., 181, Verfahrensrecht.. ., 34, and “Legal Aspects.. .,” 143; Toivari, “Man
versus Woman.. .,” 161. On the virtual absence of women as witnesses and scribes,
see Harari, “Capacité.. .,” 50. On a mythic level, Allam compares the role of the
goddess Neith in the Tale of Horus and Seth (“Legal Aspects...,” 138).
(^281) See Pestman, Marriage.. ., 88; Eyre, “Market.. .,” 178. See further Menu,
“Women and Business Life.. .”; Eyre, “Adoption.. .,” 220.
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