A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law

(c) One woman declares that when her father learned that her hus-

band was robbing the tombs, he forbade the thief to enter the

father’s home.^287

4.3 Slavery

4.3.1 Definition and Terminology

As in the Old and Middle Kingdoms, it is often difficult to determine

the degree of servile status of subordinate persons; some scholars

therefore prefer to speak of “degrees of servitude.”^288 Ómand b3k^289

are the two words most commonly rendered “slave,” but Allam

argues against their always having this meaning in the New Kingdom.^290

Eyre proposes that a more important distinction is that between

office holders (sr.w) and the rest of society, that is, between admin-

istrators and workers.^291

4.3.2 Categories

Slavery is better documented in the New Kingdom than in earlier

periods in Egypt.^292 Numerous texts clearly attest to the buying and

selling of slaves,^293 but its economic significance is also not clear.^294

(^287) This may imply that the couple were living with her parents; see Johnson,
“Legal Status.. .,” 176.
(^288) E.g., Allam, “Trois lettres.. .,” 25. See also Helck, Wirtschaftsgeschichte.. ., 223;
Cruz-Uribe, “Slavery.. .,” 63.
(^289) See Bakir, Slavery.. ., 18. B3k fim, “this servant” (lit. “the servant there”), is a
standard term used by the writer of a letter when referring to himself.
(^290) “Trois lettres.. .,” 25–26. There is sometimes variation between ̇m and b3k
in the same text; see Edwards, “Bankes.. .,” 131.
(^291) Eyre, “Work.. .,” 204 and 211.
(^292) Gardiner, e.g., says that the Messuia archive is very “welcome” evidence for
the “prevalence of slavery in the 18th Dynasty,” (“Four Papyri.. .,” 43). He observes
that no other earlier contracts of this kind are found and none after until the time
of Taharqa. He is dubious about the existence of true slavery before this date,
although servants were undoubtedly very dependent upon their masters. Especially
in the New Kingdom all sorts of persons seem to have held slaves, including: herds-
man, son of soldier, priests, king’s barber, stable-master, charioteer, scribe in the
place of truth, merchant, and sandal-maker, see Bakir, Slavery.. ., 99. On slavery,
see further Janssen, “Economic History.. .,” 171–73; Steinmann, “Sklavenarbeit.. .”;
Théodoridès, “Procedure.. .,” 146–54; Helck, Wirtschaftsgeschichte.. ., 222–25. For a
list of documents recording legal cases associated with slavery, see Allam, Hieratische
Ostraka.. ., 40. The Seventeenth Dynasty Stela of Emhab may mention the pur-
chase of a (foreign) female slave; see Baines, “Emhab.. .,” 46–47.
(^293) Purchase of a female slave in Bankes Pap. I; see Edwards, “Bankes.. .,” 127.
Bakir, Slavery.. ., 70–71, lists several relevant texts but says that no sale contract
from the Eighteenth Dynasty is known to him.
(^294) Endesfelder, “Sklaven.. .,” 24. Janssen, “Economic History.. .,” 173. Cf. also
Helck, Wirtschaftsgeschichte.. ., 223.
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