446
the invocation “Listen, god, lord of the oath.”^71 Women swore by/on
Ishtar’s symbol^72 and invoked her with “Listen, Goddess, Lady of
the oath.”^73 The person to swear, according to some references, had
“to grasp” or even “to produce (pull out?)” the divine attribute.^74
Such solemn oaths were sworn in the presence of (court) witnesses,
“who heard their utterance,”^75 and were usually recorded in writ-
ing. Judicial records refer to them as “tablets with the oath of PN”
(CCT 5 14b; kt 91/k 402). This applied in particular to oaths sworn
by parties, which contain a series of statements (affirmative, nega-
tive, formal promises) whose wording seems to have been carefully
formulated and written down by the judges, to prevent any ambi-
guity.^76 Such oaths and their complications were better avoided, hence
promises in confrontations “to pay without trial, fight or oath” and
the fear of being “seized for an oath.”^77 Parties could reach an agree-
ment at the last moment, even “in the gate of the god.”^783.3.4 Ordeal
The river ordeal is mentioned once as a means of establishing the
truth among Anatolians.^79 It is not attested among Assyrians.3.4 Verdicts
Courts could render final verdicts, which “settled a case” (EL 273,
275–77), or provisional ones, which were either of a procedural
nature (EL 278, 281) or conditional (EL 279, 334), when their valid-
ity depended on facts which still needed proof. Some verdicts were”/3 197b); rarely by Assur’s pirikkum/biriqqum, perhaps his lion or lightning bolt
(CCT 4 43a, BIN 6 97). See also Hirsch, Untersuchungen.. ., 66f.(^71) EL 284; CCT 5 14b.
(^72) Called ¢uppum, a tambourine or metal hoop; see Michel, “Serment.. .,” 111f.,
and also kt 86/k 155.
(^73) Kt a/k 244 (unpubl.).
(^74) In I 681:25 a person, before swearing an oath, is “(ritually) purified” or
“cleansed” (qaddu“um).
(^75) EL 243, ICK 2 152, etc.
(^76) AKT 3 35 and 36; EL 284; CCT 5 14b, kt a/k 244; cf. BIN 6 29.
(^77) POAT 1:22f., 14:26f.
(^78) Kt 86/k 182. In kt 86/k 155, a last-minute agreement and refusal to swear
the oath already formulated earns parties a fine to be paid to the kàrum.
(^79) In kt 93/k 145:26 (Michel-Garelli, “Heurts,” 278; Günbattı, “River Ordeal.. .”).
While Assyrians swear by the dagger of Assur, Anatolian citizens “go to the river
ordeal” (ana ìdim alàkum; suggestion of C. Günbattı).
WESTBROOK_f11–431-483 8/27/03 12:27 PM Page 446