A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law

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egories of people in the sources, mention may also be made of “emi-

grants” (¢àbirù) and professional mercenaries (¢abbàtum).^20

4.2 Embassies and envoys traveled constantly between the major and

minor courts of the time, and such regular diplomatic contact was

an important component in international relations.^21 Often the envoy

(màr “iprim) was not a mere messenger but a real ambassador or

“plenipotentiary” who had negotiating powers. He usually carried

rich gifts and was often accompanied by an armed escort. Envoys

needed permission to proceed when passing border points in tran-

sit. Arriving at their destination, they would present themselves at

the palace, receive quarters in a special area (the bìt nap†arim), and

be supplied with all their material needs. Accorded a formal inter-

view with the king, gifts would be exchanged and the message deliv-

ered, read aloud from the letter(s) brought. Envoys would be invited

to royal banquets, and be accorded honorary “seats” (among the

wà“ib kussîm). Where difficult matters were at issue, interviews could

be multi-staged, and several sources provide examples of animated

or stormy negotiations. Varying levels of courtesy or hospitality offered

to envoys could create scandalous incidents and complaints. Allowed

to depart with a brief from his host, the envoy would be accompa-

nied by a guide (the àlik idim), who was to travel with him back to

his capital and witness the correct delivery of his message. Our

sources are full of incidents where envoys also engage in secret or

spying activities. During times of trouble, envoys might not be able

to move freely, and kings might avail themselves of merchants, who

enjoyed rights of neutrality, to carry messages and collect information.^22

4.3 The lingua franca of the period, Akkadian, was understood

and used in the whole region, by members of many ethno-linguistic

groups. Warfare was endemic, and accompanied by harsh measures

and the enslavement of captives, if not ransomed. Mistrust and trea-

son were rampant, but at the same time, the traditions and stan-

dards of international conduct were a strong stabilizing factor.

(^20) See Eidem, “North Syrian Social Structure...”
(^21) Lafont, “Messagers...”
(^22) Charpin and Durand, “A““ur...”
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