A History of Ancient Near Eastern Law

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Women rarely, if ever, bear specific status titles in the legal docu-

ments but merely the generic term s ̇m.t, “woman.”^70

4.2.1 Ethnicity

Under the Ptolemies and the Romans, ethnic status was important

for specifying occupation and tax status. Ethnic designations of per-

sons in official texts are common, especially from the Saite/Persian

through the Ptolemaic periods.^71 The extent to which the titles reflected

real ethnicity is debated.

4.2.2 Temple status

Egyptian society was rigidly hierarchical. Having status within a tem-

ple estate was normally the highest one could have. A member of the

priesthood in a temple enjoyed the most desirable status. Other staff

in the temple, such as craftsmen or herdsmen, indicated their status

by naming their title in contracts. The problematic term “Occupation

title, servant (b3k) of DN” may indicate such status within a temple

estate.^72 However, the term “servant of DN” also bore religious

significance. In the so-called “self-dedication” texts, individuals pledged

themselves to a god in return for protection from that god.

4.3 Gender and Age

4.3.1 It has been usually assumed that women in Egypt at all peri-

ods had an independent legal status, held property in their own name,

and could make contracts and engage in business transactions inde-

pendently from their husbands.^73 This independence in Demotic legal

texts contrasts with the Greek institution of guardianship. Pestman,

however, has recently argued that caution is in order in interpreting

Demotic legal texts which prima facie look like they document the

complete legal independence of women but upon closer examination

reveal that men may have acted on behalf of women in contracts.^74

(^70) P. Leiden I 379 mentions a s ̇m.t w3 ̇-mw, perhaps to be translated “the female
Chaochyte priest,” but the title is disputed. I thank Koen Donker van Heel for
bringing the citation to my attention.
(^71) Mélèze-Modrzejewski, “Statut des Hellènes.. .”; La"da, “Ethnicity...”
(^72) Manning, “Land and Status....” A different opinion is expressed by Kessler,
“Gottes-Diener...”
(^73) Allam, “Women as Holders of Rights.. .”; Johnson, “Legal Status.. .,” 177.
(^74) Pestman, “Appearance and Reality.. .,” 83–85.
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