4 herbert niehr
not always easy to determine what is aramaean. this question is espe-
cially pertinent to southern anatolia and northern Syria, as the differen-
tiation between Luwian and aramaean architecture and art can be very
problematic.26
In architecture two types of urban construction are distinguished:
newly founded settlements and acquisition or expansion of existing older
settlements. Both are referred to in inscriptions and are found on archaeo-
logical sites.
references to newly built cities or expansions of existing cities and set-
tlements are made, for example, in the inscriptions of kings panamuwa
I of Samʾal (ca. 790–750 B.c.), who had construction work done in his
capital city (KaI 214,10–15), and Zakkur of hamath, who expanded haz-
rak around 800 B.c. (KaI 202 B 3–12).
cities founded by the aramaeans are recognizable by their rectangular
or circular layout. they also have a citadel located in the city center or
near one of the outer walls. examples of this layout are found in Guzana
(tell halaf), hadattu (arslan tash), arpad (tell rifaʿat), and Samʾal (Zin-
cirli). older settlements that were taken over by aramaeans and expanded
include til Barsib, aleppo, hazrak, and damascus.
In terms of architecture, the palaces of the hilani type, for example in
Guzana (tell halaf), Samʾal (Zincirli), hamath, and tell tayinat, are con-
sidered a typically aramaean construction form in north Syria.27
In aramaean art, the working of ivory was very important. there were
two major craft centers in Guzana (tell halaf) and in damascus. Further
examples of aramaean art are found in the reliefs of the palace walls in
Guzana (tell halaf) and Samʾal (Zincirli). the latter reliefs, especially,
have been heavily influenced by Luwian examples from carchemish.
additionally, there are a number of statues of lions, sphinxes, and kings
from several different locations.28
particularly important to understanding the aramaean culture are the
explorations of numerous sites and regions of the aramaean kingdoms of
Syria, which began at the end of the 19th century and are still ongoing, in,
26 cf. aro 2003: 281–285.
27 See the contribution of M. novák in this volume.
28 See the contribution of d. Bonatz in this volume.