introduction 5
for example, tell halaf,29 tell Fekheriye,30 til Barsib,31 Samʾal (Zincirli),32
tell afis,33 hamath,34 and damascus.35
- chronology and Geography
aramaeans existed before they were called the aramaean people as such.
Fundamental to an understanding of the prehistory and early history of
the aramaeans is the concept of nomadism in the upper and Middle
euphrates and Middle Syria, mentioned in written sources during the late
3rd and early 2nd millennium B.c. the letters from Mari dating to the
18th century provide particular insight into the conflict between the sed-
entary and nomadic populations. the nomads appeared under the catch-
all term amorites (“Westerners”) and could be further differentiated into
tribes such as Yaminites, Simʾalites, or Suteans.36
the home range of the Yaminites reached from the Middle euphra-
tes to Mari in the south, to the Baliḫ region and harran in the north.
they had access to the Mediterranean by way of aleppo and Qaṭna. the
Simʾalites roamed the area around the Khabur river and east and south of
Mari up to the region around Suḫu. the Suteans were found in the Middle
euphrates and west of there, along the Jebel Bishri to damascus. Sporadic
contacts to the north are referred to in texts from alalaḫ and ugarit. they
also participated in a raid on Byblos.
In addition to these three major tribes or tribal confederations, sev-
eral other smaller tribes existed. 19th-century B.c. old-Babylonian texts
mention the term aḫlamû, which describes nomadic tribes from both
29 cf. von oppenheim 1931; id. 1943; id. 1950; id. 1955; id. 1962; elsen-novák – novák
1994; orthmann 2001; id. 2002; Baghdo – Martin – novák – orthmann (eds.) 2009; iid.
(eds.) 2012; cholidis – Martin 2002; iid. (eds.) 2010; iid. (eds.) 2011; Martin – novák 2010.
30 cf. Bonatz – Bartl – Gilibert – Jauss 2008.
31 cf. thureau-dangin – dunand 1936a; iid. 1936b; Bunnens (ed.) 1990; id. 1994; id.
1997b; id. 2009; Bunnens – hawkins – Leirens 2006.
32 cf. von Luschan 1893; id. 1898; id. 1902; id. 1911; id. 1943; Landsberger 1948; Wartke
2005; Schloen – Fink 2009a; iid. 2009b; iid. 2009c; casana – herrmann 2010.
33 cf. Mazzoni et al. 1992; Mazzoni – cecchini 1995; cecchini – Mazzoni (eds.) 1998;
Mazzoni 1998a; ead. 2001b; ead. 2002–2003; ead. 2008; ead. 2012; Mazzoni et al. (eds.)
2005; Venturi 1998; id. 2000; id. 2007.
34 cf. Ingholt 1934; Fugmann 1958; de Maigret 1979; ploug 1985; riis 1948; id. 1987; riis –
Buhl 1990.
35 cf. Watzinger – Wulzinger 1921; Sauvaget 1939; id. 1949; pitard 1987; Sack 1989; ead.
1997; Burns 2005.
36 See Kupper 1957.