society, institutions, law, and economy 51
rites and honors after his death (Kai 215: 16–18). nevertheless, the ultra-
loyal rulers were also at risk of revolts. Bar-rakkab was the last king of
Samʾal and further details on what or who led to the end of the aramaean
kingship in Samʾal remain obscure. Furthermore, assyrian annals recount
numerous revolts and anti-assyrian rulers of whom the most famous was
probably King hazael of damascus.88
we learn from numerous inscriptions that kingship was hereditary,
but that direct succession was not required.89 Kulamuwa reports that
his brother ruled before him (Kai 24: 3–4). Bar-rakkab speaks about his
father’s involvement in inheritance disputes, which cost many their lives
(Kai 215: 1–8).
the gods of kingship were also guarantors of the fertility and security90
of the land and of numerous progeny,91 who secured the continuity of
the dynasty. as in other kingdoms the state cult of Samʾal, for which the
king was responsible (Kai 214: 12), was of great significance, and was one
of the king’s main duties.92 excavations of the citadel of Samʾal have yet
to yield temples, but panamuwa i boasts of building temples for the gods
(Kai 214: 20).93
Besides reports that the gods handed the scepter of kingship over to
the king and that the appointed king took possession of the throne,94 we
know nothing about the rites of enthronement or other cults of kingship.
only the royal cult of the dead kings gives us information on the status
of a dead king who had a special relationship with the gods. in Samʾal
as well as in Guzana (tell halaf ) we have evidence of the special rela-
tionship the dead kings enjoyed with the gods. in Samʾal, the practice of
customary sacrifices to hadad and King panamuwa i is known from an
inscription (Kai 214: 17–18, 21–22). in Guzana the customary sacrifice is
proven by excavation of the statues of a god (?) and probably of a royal
couple in a Kultraum.95 Both hint at a posthumous divinization of the
88 For the assyrian sources, see dion 1997: 264 n. 101.
89 dion 1997: 243f.
90 the gods stood by the side of the kings or marched in front of them in military
conflicts. dion 1997: 248.
91 Kai 214: 20.
92 we do not know whether the king could function as a priest and personally perform
the rites. panamuwa i’s statement that the gods used to take the sacrifice from his hand,
does not rule out the possibility that a priest performed the rite on behalf of the king.
93 But cf. section 3.3 in h. niehr’s contribution on religion in this volume.
94 this is expressed by the phrase: “i sat on my father’s throne” (Kai 24: 9).
95 niehr 1994b; id. 2001; id. 2006; id. 2010a: 217–223, 279–284; orthmann 2002: 53–55;
id. 2009.