58 dagmar kühn
should be sought in the aramaeans’ semi-nomadic past, where the herds-
men (nāqidu/nōqēd) were the leaders of the herds.139
e. Lipiński also assumes a semi-nomadic past for the title pqd, because
this title is found in neither the aramaean nor assyrian sources. he
notes that, “it is basically a passive form paqīd derived from the aramaic
verb pqd, ‘to survey’, and etymologically designating one who is under a
command, thus a ‘subordinate’.”140 p.-e. dion hints at the high position
of this official, who is mentioned in the inscription of the Sefire stele iii141
along with the sons and brothers of the king.142
2.7 Military 143the warfare of nomadic people consisted of sudden attacks and retreats
without direct confrontation with the enemy.144 the conquest and defense
of villages and fortified cities required different military equipment and
tactics, and aramaean warfare changed with the settlement process.145
the annals of the assyrian kings report considerable military contingents
of aramaean opponents and coalitions in Syria. although one has to be
cautious with the high numbers146 given in the annals, as they might have
been exaggerated to make the victories of the assyrians appear more glo-
rious then they actually were, the details allow a rough estimation of the
strength of aramaean opponents.147 the contingents of aram-damascus
and its allies in the battles of Qarqar (853 and 841 B.c.) are the best
confirmed, although the details as to their size vary148 in several assyr-
ian inscriptions.149 after their conquests, the assyrians often confiscated
chariots or demanded horses as tribute. the loyal vassals fought with their
contingents side by side with the assyrians. Bar-rakkab of Samʾal boasted
139 Lipiński 2000a: 502f.
140 Lipiński 2000a: 503.
141 Kai 224: 4, 10, 13.
142 dion 1997: 278.
143 dion 1997: 301–324 offers a detailed discourse upon the different aspects of the
military institutions.
144 we hear about these “guerrilla tactics” in the assyrian annals in the context of the
conflicts with the nomadic aḫlamū; cf. paragraph 1, above.
145 Lipiński 2000a: 498.
146 For the assyrian way of counting, see mayer 1995b: 35–48.
147 mayer 1995b: 284 assumes that detailed lists about the aramaean contingents came
into the hands of the assyrians after the battles and were used for the annals.
148 this fluctuation in the details of one and the same military event is striking. millard
1991: 216 has noticed that the numbers are increasing with the growing distance in time.
149 dion 1997: 316 arranges the detailed numbers in a table.