132 chapter 3
humanity into three groups, namely the intelligent (akil), fools (ahmak), and
sinners ( facir). A perfect individual exhibits a synthesis of knowledge (ilm),
reason, and patience (hilm).95 The degree of simplicity compared to the much
more sophisticated psychology of Kınalızade or Tursun (and, in fact, as seen
in Kashifi when compared to Tusi or Davvani) is evident. Other chapters deal
with moral values and political principles, such as honesty (sıdk), courage
(şeca ’at), consultation (meşveret), and justice (adalet). The chapter on grati-
tude (şükr) contains an interesting description of the ruler’s need to be grateful
for God’s blessings (which brings to mind the concept of mutual duties seen in
the writings of Mustafa Şeyhoğlu and al-Semerkandî, as well as a similar pas-
sage in Tursun Beg): in return for his rulership, he must practise justice towards
his subjects; in return for the extent of his territories, he should not covet his
subjects’ property; in return for his orders being followed, he has to recognize
his subordinates’ efforts; for being placed in such an exalted position, he has to
be compassionate with those in low ones; for being rich, he must give to char-
ity and distribute his favors to whomever deserves them; and so on (B54). In
other chapters, Celalzade urges the sultan to be compassionate, generous, and
mild, to care for the ulema, etc. Celalzade’s system of values is one of mutual
obligations (somewhat reminiscent of Taşköprüzade’s similar adaptation in
his Asrar al-khilafa): a chapter on the “duties to be obeyed” (riayet-i hukuk) lists
the obligations one has towards others, including God, one’s parents, relatives,
teachers, neighbors, and guests, as well as the mutual obligations of people
to their commanders, and vice versa (B82). This integration of individual mo-
rality with state politics can also be seen in the chapter on “governing” (B97:
siyaset): governing can be either individual (siyaset-i nefsi), meaning a person’s
struggle against their own passions, helped by reason, or collective (siyaset-i
gayri), i.e. administrators’ awareness of any oppression or mischief among the
people so that they may reform the perpetrators or punish them if necessary.
The chapters on the sultanate (B60–63) and the vizierate (B64–67) are
among the longest in Celalzade’s work (and also contain much original mate-
rial). The sultan is “the soul for the body of justice, the eternal life for the body
of the country”; kingship is necessary for societies, since its results are (B60)
protection for the cities, safety for the people, security for their properties
and ways of life, the promulgation of knowledge and faith, and the sup-
pression of oppressors, evil-doers, and mischief-makers.95 See also Şahin 2013, 234–238 for other examples of the importance Celalzade gives to
reason.