Khaldunist Philosophy: Innovation Justified 281
of military domination in the capital, which was finally put to an end by the
decisive reaction of the merchants of the city, something that met with the
new sultan’s approval and help.6 Indeed, Mehmed’s successor, Süleyman II
(1687–91), made serious efforts to restore the sultan’s personal powers. Despite
this, however, the Habsburg forces continued their counter-attack, managing
to reach the Danube and even capturing Belgrade. Süleyman tried to stop their
offensive using both diplomatic and military means, but the enemy contin-
ued to march through Serbia and the Danube principalities. At this crucial
point, the new grand vizier, Köprülü Fazıl Mustafa Pasha (the younger son of
Mehmed Köprülü), managed to reorganize the army effectively, purging the
janissary lists of soldiers unable to fight, and with the help of other factors
(such as the French-Habsburg war) launched a successful counter-offensive in
the autumn of 1690. The Ottomans recaptured Belgrade and the rest of Serbia,
while Mustafa Pasha continued to reorganize the timar system and the army.
However, in 1691 Süleyman died and Mustafa Pasha was killed at the front;
battles continued throughout the reign of Ahmed II (1691–95) without clear
gains or losses.
Ahmed’s successor, Mustafa II (1695–1703), led some successful campaigns
against the Austrians but his army was crushed at Zenta in 1697, soon after the
Russians had captured Azov in the Crimea. After long negotiations, led by the
new grand vizier, Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha (also a member of the Köprülü
family), the war was officially ended with the Treaty of Karlowitz (1699), the
first treaty to officially recognize a surrender of Ottoman territories to the in-
fidels. Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha continued the reforming efforts of his prede-
cessor; however, Mustafa, who was trying to resume the sultan’s powers against
the notable pasha and ulema households (he tried to reverse the trend and
use people from his own household),7 was increasingly reliant on his former
teacher and confidant, the şeyhülislam Feyzullah Efendi, whose unchecked
nepotism alienated the court and the sultan from the bulk of the ulema hi-
erarchy. The retirement of Amcazade Hüseyin Pasha in 1702 made things no
better; as Mustafa had actually moved to Edirne during the Karlowitz negotia-
tions and showed no signs of returning to Istanbul, dismay grew there. In 1703,
a small rebellion of some military troops soon rallied other soldiers, ulema,
and craftsmen, eventually establishing a rival power in the capital with its
own şeyhülislam and officials (the so-called “Edirne event” or Edirne vakası).
Mustafa amassed an army in Edirne and marched against the rebels, but the
latter had already built a large force and were slowly advancing towards Edirne.
6 See Yi 2011.
7 See the numbers studied by Abou-El-Haj 1984, 49.