348 chapter 8
by Müteferrika’s press. Dürri’s introductory analysis of human society and his-
torical laws is as telling as it is, in several ways, original. His concept of what
constitutes society shows the influence of Kâtib Çelebi’s biological similes, for
example when he speaks of “what is like the four elements (anasır-ı erba ’a),
namely the viziers, the soldiers, the peasants, and the sultan’s treasury” (282b).
In his introduction (283a–286a), Dürri notes that the Ottomans had constant
military success for over 250 years; however, it is a necessity of the divine wis-
dom that, just like the human individual (efrad-ı nev’-i beşer) has three ages, of
growth, stagnation, and physical decline (nümuv, vukuf, inhitat), so do states
(devletler) as well. The Ottoman state has reached the age of maturity or stag-
nation, but because it is the greatest of its peers in magnitude, wealth, and
power, the experts in history did not discern the signs that it was entering this
age and thus failed to give the appropriate counsel. The Ottoman state passed
through the “three ages” (kurun-ı selase) in A.H. 950 (1543/44), 980 (1572/73),
and 1000 (1591/92); these ages, being the “age of growth” (senn-i nümuv), were
full of wars and victories. Afterwards, however, came the “age of stagnation”
(senn-i vukuf), when people want peace and welfare rather than war and
glory. This explains why, from then on, Ottoman wars ended in both victories
and defeats. Continuous warfare brought severe damage to the treasury and
the army, although wise officials kept seeing the problem and explaining it
to the grand viziers, who occasionally managed to take some measures. When
the war with Russia started, it wrought great damage on the peasants, the army,
and the treasury; thus, peace was concluded in order for the state to have the
time and ease to mend its shortcomings (tedabir-i nizam).
One may detect some confusion in this account of the stages, as the “three
ages” soon became only a preface to the “age of stagnation” and, presumably,
the final threat of the “age of decline”. In a period when, as will be seen in the
following chapter, another aspect of Khaldunist philosophy (namely, the dis-
tinction between settled and nomadic life) was becoming increasingly popular,
Dürri combined the simile of human ageing and the “three ages” (stressed by
Kâtib Çelebi) with the more elaborate model of the “five stages” (expounded
by Na’ima), mainly to emphasize the need for peace in order to reform the state
(again just like Na’ima, but also in the same vein as a whole series of works
written during and after the Ottoman-Russian war). Indeed, Dürri later repeats
his plea for peace (294b–296a), copying faithfully the relevant part of Na’ima’s
history: he maintains that if the measures he proposes are taken, Russia will
eventually stop coveting Muslim territory, and especially the Crimea. For this,
however, there must be absolutely no war in the near future. If, “as is the nat-
ural custom of states” (295a: adet-i teba ’i-i düvel üzre), Russia or some other
neighbor again shows greediness for a region, the Ottomans should not wage