386 chapter 9
middle one to the benefits of geographical knowledge. The first chapter, com-
posed of five parts ( fasıl), is more theoretical, indeed written with a degree of
abstraction (and with strong Aristotelian overtones) quite rare in Müteferrika’s
time, as seen in the previous chapter, whereas the rest of the treatise follows
a more practical thread, although again this is with a level of abstraction un-
usual for its time.16
Let us first delve into the theoretical part of Usûlü’l-hikem. In a manner rem-
iniscent of Kınalızade and Kâtib Çelebi, Müteferrika states that, as shown by
geometrical proofs composed by the wise, the world is round and hung in the
void, inhabited all around by men, like a “watermelon full of ants”. God created
man as a naturally civilized being (bi’t-tab’ zevatlarında medeniyyet merkuz
kılınmağla); men seek society (talib-i ictima ’) and need each other either for
sustenance or to reproduce and to continue their life. This need led to people
living together and thus to the creation of societies. However, due to the dif-
ferences of their dispositions and their customs and opinions, some men tend
to use power and violence in order to dominate others and make them submit
to serving them. Because of these injustices, the foundation of justice and laws
and thus the existence of wise leaders are necessary. These leaders’ task is to
use their practical philosophy (hikmet-i ameliyye) and impose equity and “obe-
dience to laws, which constitute the means of politics” (medar-ı siyaset olan
ri’ayet-i kunun), so no-one oppresses anyone else.
It was the Prophet who lay down these rules; but after he left for the Hereafter,
a just and powerful sultan must rule to secure the application of the religious
and secular rules (kavanin-i siyasete) and to put the affairs of the Muslims
in order. Thus, an administrator is necessary to rule people, who have been
created as dependent from each other for their sustenance and as social by
nature (emr-i ma ’aşında dahi gayr-ı müstakil, belki medeniyyün bi’t-tab olub).
Because of God’s love for His slaves, He sends them either a prophet or a just
ruler. The various peoples submit to the wise rules, as they are naturally inclined
to do, and every community is subject to a king. Thus, people have created vari-
ous states (devletler kurdılar) and appointed rulers by various names—caliphs,
sultans, kings, khans, kaisers or tsars (Ş128–130).
16 There is also a long chapter (Ş154–162) on a quite different subject, namely the advantages
of the science of geography. One of the arguments is that Muslim people live outside
Ottoman borders, ignorant of each other; if all Muslims were acquainted with each other
they could unite and dispose of their infidel rulers, under the protection of the one and
only sultan (Ş156–157). Besides, geography is indispensable for the comprehension of his-
tory, as well as for conducting diplomatic negotiations in order to divide conquered coun-
tries and to reshape borders.