486 appendix 2
comes when the individuals of the city do use their faculty of reason, but their
other faculties prevail; in this case, the faculty of reason obeys the other facul-
ties, which also form the reason for the people’s association. This is the vicious
city. And the third kind is when the people of the city have deficient rational
powers; thus, they imagine that wrong precepts are right and that the corrupt
law is correct, taking these as the causes of their association. This is the errone-
ous city. Now, these imperfect cities, and especially the erroneous one, can be of
many sorts, because as we said the ways of ignorance have no end and the types
of error are innumerable. It is possible to divide erroneous cities into two kinds:
the infidel erroneous city, like the cities of the Franks, the Russians, and the other
infidel sections; and the non-infidel erroneous city, such as when corrupt sects of
Muslims gather and associate in one place; for instance the Red-Headed People
[i.e. the Shi‘a of Iran]. This kind of city may also be described as an ignorant infi-
del city. It is possible for a virtuous city to change to an imperfect one, and vice
versa.
... Let it be known that civilized societies are a general composition and ar-
rangement of various classes and communities. Every class has its appropriate
degree (of power) and place, and professes its special activities ... The constitu-
tion of the world is based on the equilibrium among these components ... For it
is known that, at the beginning of a state [or dynasty], one class is united and its
members support and help each other, like the members of a single body, be-
cause everyone has power to a limited extent but the power of many gathered
together in one place is greater than the power of each individual. A small class,
when is united, prevails over a larger but divided one. Is it not clear that any rul-
ing class is not even one-tenth (the number) of its subjects? But they are united
and they prevail over their subjects because the latter are not ... Experience has
shown that whenever such a ruling class has unity and mutual assistance it is
safe from difficulties and deficiencies, but when, later, factions and disagree-
ments appear among this class it starts to weaken and finally ends in ruins.
... The first rule [for the king] is to treat all creatures [i.e. men] as equal be-
cause the creatures are for the world like the four elements; and, in the human
constitution, if the elements are not equal and in proportion there cannot be
health or healing. Similarly, if people are not treated equally the situation of the
world cannot be healthy and ordered. Now, the elements of the body of the
world are four, like the elements of the human body: firstly the men of the pen,
the ulema, the judges, the scribes, the chancellors, the doctors, the poets, the
astrologers, and the engineers. They take the place of water, since knowledge is
necessary for the life of souls as water is necessary for the life of the world. [As
the Quran says, ] We created every living thing from water. Secondly, the men of
the sword, commanders and warriors and sipahis ... This class is like fire, the
reason for this analogy being obvious. Thirdly, the class of tradesmen, those who