erupted over disputed land near Fort Defi-
ance, Arizona Territory. When settlers shot
Navajo horses, raided their villages, and finally
killed several natives, war chiefs Barboncito
and Manuelitogathered upward of 1,000 war-
riors for a retaliatory strike in April 1860. The
Navajos closely pressed the defenders of Fort
Defiance for several days before being driven
off by a relief column. When the soldiers pur-
sued the fleeing Indians into the mountains,
the latter resorted to time-honored hit-and-run
guerrilla tactics that stymied all attempts to
capture them. Eventually, Barboncito pre-
vailed upon other chiefs to resume peaceful
relations with their white neighbors, and the
fighting momentarily stopped. He then per-
suaded other chiefs to conclude another
peace treaty with Gen. Edward R.S. Canby in
February 1861, and tranquility was soon re-
stored. However, a new commander, the
brusque Gen. James H. Carleton, had recently
arrived in Arizona from California. Carleton
had previously defeated Apache forces en
route and was equally determined to eliminate
any opportunities for Navajo misbehavior. In
1862, he summarily ordered the entire tribe to
relocate to the Bosque Redondo Reservation,
New Mexico, or face immediate military ac-
tion. Furthermore, Carleton threatened to
treat any armed Navajo not responding to his
demand as an enemy—with serious conse-
quences resulting. The threat initially carried
little meaning, as the Civil War was unfolding
farther east and many of the nearby army gar-
risons were greatly reduced in strength. But
ultimately, Carleton’s actions culminated in
the infamous so-called Long Walk of 1864,
whereby nearly 8,000 men, women, and chil-
dren were forced across 350 miles of barren
plains for purposes of resettlement. Because
Barboncito and other chiefs refused to leave
their sacred homeland and held out, there was
little Carleton could do initially. Therefore, a
new and effective Native American enemy—
army scout Christopher “Kit” Carson—made
his debut.
Realizing the futility of trying to outrun or
outmaneuver the crafty Navajos in their
mountainous enclave, Carson initiated a de-
liberate scorched-earth policy to deny the In-
dians food and shelter. This form of warfare
was something that the Indians had never
previously experienced. Over the next few
months, Carson’s New Mexico Volunteers
burned villages and crops, shot cattle, and in
every possible way worked to deprive the
Navajos the necessities of life. Furthermore,
warriors from the neighboring Ute and Hopi
tribes were encouraged to make war against
the Navajos. The impasse continued for sev-
eral months, but gradually cold weather and
deprivation forced the Indians to surrender
in larger and larger numbers. They were then
trundled up for resettlement at Bosque Re-
dondo, where conditions were equally harsh.
At length Manuelito and his band of follow-
ers surrendered in September 1866. Bar-
boncito and 21 followers held out in the
Canyon de Chelly until the following Octo-
ber, before he became the last major Navajo
figure to give up.
Finding living conditions at the Bosque Re-
dondo Reservation appalling, Barboncito es-
caped with a group of 500 followers in June- All were captured and returned after
another year of fighting. Barboncito then
marshaled all his natural eloquence and reli-
gious authority to bolster Navajo morale dur-
ing their long ordeal. He and other tribal lead-
ers also continuously and forcefully appealed
to the U.S. government for redress. At length
Barboncito, accompanied by Manuelito and
others, formed a deputation that ventured to
Washington, D.C., to discuss these griev-
ances. Gen. William Tecumseh Sherman, rep-
resenting the government, was so impressed
by the Navajos’ plea that he agreed to allow
them to leave the hated Bosque Redondo
Reservation for new homes in Oklahoma.
Barboncito recoiled at the thought, declaring,
“I hope to God you will not ask us to go to an-
other country except our own. It might turn
out to be another Bosque Redondo. They told
us this was a good place when we came here,
but it is not.” Moreover, when other areas
were then offered to the Navajo, Barboncito
BARBONCITO