Partei Deutschlands. The advent of Nazi rule forced him to emi-
grate to England, where he earned a doctorate in political science
at the London School of Economics. In 1936, Neumann joined the
neo-Marxist Frankfurt Institute of Social Research in exile at Co-
lumbia University in New York City and later became an American
citizen.
His main intelligence work began in early 1943 with his appoint-
ment as deputy chief of the Central European Section of the Research
and Analysis Branch of the OSS. Known as the intellectual leader of
this group and author of the weighty treatise Behemoth, Neumann
insisted that a military defeat of Germany would not be sufficient to
eradicate National Socialism and that new forms of political warfare
were needed to combat an intertwined military, bureaucratic, and
industrial ruling class. At the same time, according to the Venona de-
cryptions, Neumann (code name ruff) was supplying various reports
to the NKVD (Soviet People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs). A
new assignment materialized at war’s end with his appointment as
a chief U.S. consultant to the International War Crimes Tribunal in
Nuremberg and led to his brief return to Europe. He left government
service in 1947 and resumed teaching at Columbia, aware that many
of his predictions about postwar Germany had not come to pass.
Neumann died in an automobile accident in Visp, Switzerland, on 2
September 1954.NEUMANN, FRITZ. See T-APPARAT.
NICOLAI, WALTER (1873–1947). The chief of German military in-
telligence during World War I, Walter Nicolai was born in Brunswick
on 1 August 1873, the son of an infantry commander. He embarked on
a military career in 1893, studied at the War Academy in Berlin, and
became a member of the General Staff in 1908. His chief assignment
was to examine Russia’s strategy toward the West in the aftermath
of the Russo-Japanese War (he also added the mastery of Japanese
to his prior knowledge of Russian). His further reconnaissance of
Russia while based in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia) from
July 1906 to March 1910 earned him high marks from his superiors.
In addition to relying on open sources, Nicolai created a network of
agents—mostly Polish and Russian Jews—who submitted reports
NICOLAI, WALTER • 319