to the Iraqi government in spring 2004. His long career included ser-
vice as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, Philippines, Mexico,
and Honduras, but in between official assignments, he also had occa-
sion to work in the private sector and as deputy national security ad-
visor during the administration of William J. Clinton. Negroponte
began his foreign service career in the early 1960s, serving in Hong
Kong and Vietnam, later becoming a key advisor to National Secu-
rity Advisor Henry A. Kissinger, with whom he eventually clashed
during the Paris peace negotiations over the insufficient protections
provided to the beleaguered government of South Vietnam.NICARAGUA.SeeCONTRAS; IRAN-CONTRAAFFAIR; NEGRO-
PONTE, JOHN D.; NICARAGUA v. UNITED STATES.NICARAGUA v. UNITED STATES.During the administration of
Ronald Reaganin the 1980s, the United States actively supported
the Contra insurgency against the leftist Sandinista regime in
Nicaragua. As part of its support, President Reagan authorized the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to assist the Contras and conduct
covert operations against the Sandinistas. Nicaragua brought charges
against the United States before the International Court of Justice
(ICJ) in The Hague, Netherlands, claiming substantial injury from the
covert operations. The Reagan administration in turn invoked its
right not to be a party to the suit and revoked U.S. acceptance of the
optional clause, first with regard to lawsuits on Central America and
later for any and all disputes. The United States also refused to ap-
pear before the court during the final hearings on the merits and never
recognized the ICJ rulings as binding.
The United States maintained that security issues are nonjusticia-
ble and that Nicaragua never properly accepted the optional clause.
The U.S. delegation also filed an affirmative defense for its activities
in Nicaragua under the theory of collective self-defense. The ICJ,
however, rejected this argument and refused to review countercom-
plaints filed by both the United States and El Salvador regarding
Nicaraguan violations of international law in the form of active San-
dinista support for Salvadoran rebels. It awarded Nicaragua an un-
specified but potentially tremendous level of damages, estimated to
be as large as $17 billion.142 • NICARAGUA05-398 (2) Dictionary.qxd 10/20/05 6:27 AM Page 142