Historical Dictionary of United States Intelligence

troducing military forces. It also requires the president to report to

Congress any introduction of forces into hostilities or imminent hos-

tilities, into foreign territory while equipped for combat, or in num-

bers that substantially enlarge U.S. combat forces already in a foreign

country. Once a report is submitted, Congress must authorize the use

of forces within 60 or 90 days or the forces must be withdrawn.

Since its passage, many constitutional experts have questioned the

act’s usefulness, pointing out that Congress has tended to defer to the

president when conducting war. More importantly, every president

since 1973 has declared the act to be unconstitutional, even though

no president since the act’s passage has challenged the act in court.

Finally, every president since 1973 has asked for, and received, au-

thorization for the use of force consistent with the provisions of the

War Powers Resolution.

WARSAW PACT.The Soviet Unionand its client states in Eastern Eu-

rope established the Warsaw Pact alliance on 14 May 1955 in order

to counterbalance the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

The Warsaw Pact dissolved on 1 July 1991.

WASHINGTON, GEORGE (1732–1799).The first president of the

United States from 1789 to 1797, setting precedents in all areas of the

presidency, including the use and management of intelligence activities.

Although George Washington’s military and political exploits have re-

ceived more attention than his intelligence activities, he was a deep be-

liever in the value and effective use of intelligence. Washington devel-

oped his appreciation of intelligence in the French and Indian War

(1754–1763), during which he gathered intelligence and ran spies.

It was during the Revolutionary War that General Washington

brought his intelligence skills to bear on winning the patriotic cause.

He utilized agents behind enemy lines, recruited both Tory and patri-

otic sources, interrogated travelers for intelligence information, and

launched scores of agents on both intelligence and counterintelli-

gencemissions. His most successful spy operation in New York City,

the Culper Spy Ring, employed all these skills.

As an intelligence manager, Washington insisted that the terms of an

agent’s employment and his instructions be precise and in writing, com-

posing many letters of instruction himself. He instructed his generals to

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