Historical Dictionary of United States Intelligence

During the war, each side attempted to develop intelligence capa-

bilities. Allan Pinkertontook it upon himself to try organizing a

Union intelligence effort, without much success. The Secret Service

Bureaubegan with little fanfare and ended with no success. What

came to be effective intelligence for the Union was little more than

private intelligence services established by federal officers to serve

their own units. The South had a more organized intelligence capabil-

ity in the form of the Confederate Secret Service, which existed for

much of the war. However, there is little information to suggest that it

contributed significantly to the Southern cause. Individual espionage

missions probably did more than organized efforts to contribute to

each side’s war effort. See alsoCUSHMAN, PAULINE; EDMONDS,

EMMA; GREENHOW, ROSE O’NEAL; VAN LEW, ELIZABETH.

CLASSIFIED INFORMATION PROCEDURES ACT (CIPA). The

Classified Information Procedures Act, enacted on 15 October 1980,

governs the use of classified information in criminal proceedings.

The CIPAtries to balance the right of a criminal defendant to access

relevant information with the right of the government to know in ad-

vance the damage that might accrue if classified information were re-

vealed during the course of a trial. The act was passed after some for-

mer intelligence officers, brought up on criminal charges for official

and nonofficial activities, began demanding the use of classified ma-

terials during the conduct of their legal defense.

CLINTON, WILLIAM JEFFERSON (1946– ).Forty-second presi-

dent of the United States between 1993 and 2001. President Clinton,

like President Jimmy Carter, campaigned as a Washington outsider

and defeated incumbent president George H. W. Bushover eco-

nomic issues. Clinton was a beneficiary of the end of the Cold War,

which allowed him to cut back on government spending, including

intelligence, as part of the “peace dividend.” However, the end of the

Cold War also thrust President Clinton into new and unchartered for-

eign policy waters that compelled him, in his second term, to boost

spending on defense and intelligence.

During his two terms as president, Clinton successfully dispatched

peacekeeping forces to war-torn Bosnia, bombed Iraq when Saddam

Hussein stopped United Nations (UN) inspections for evidence of

weapons of mass destruction, lobbed a cruise missile at al Qai’da

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