War by Revolution. Germany and Great Britain in the Middle East in the Era of World War I

THETHICKENINGPLOTANDHOLYWAR 77

Punjab,thegovernmentmaderuthlessuseofthePress Actandthe
DefenceofIndiaAct;thelattersupersededtheprovisionsofcriminal
law,setupspecialcourtsthatcouldholdsummaryproceedings,and
allowedthegovernmenttointernsuspectedpersonswithouttrial.
AnArmsActdeniedIndiansthefreedomtocarryarms,andanother
lawregulatedthearrivalinIndiaofemigrantssuspectedofrevolu-
tionaryactivities."Theonlydirecttasteofwar forIndiaresultedwhen
theGermanlightcruiserEmdenraidedBritishshippingintheNorth
PacificandIndianOcean."
InBerlin,partlybecauseofthetightsecurityinIndia,Oppenheim
andhiscohortspossessedlittleaccurateknowledgeofthesituation
there.Theyacceptedwithoutquestionunsubstantiatedreports,most
ofthemfromGermandiplomatsinPersiaandChina,claimingIndia
wasripeforrebellion."TheGermanleadersbelievedthatifweapons
andpropagandaweresuppliedtoIndianrevolutionariesforanarmed
risingandTurkeycalleduponIndianMuslimsto riseagainstcolo-
nialrule,largenumbersofBritishtroopswouldbetieddownand
unavailablefor use inEurope.Oppenheimoverestimatedthestrength
ofpan-IslamisminIndiaimmediatelybeforetheworldwar.»Tobe
sure,manyIndianMuslimsexpressedthemselvesinpan-Islamic
terms,andduringtheTurkish-ItalianandBalkanwarsof19IIand
1912 nearlytheentireMuslimpressinIndiahadsupportedtheTurks.
Butpan-IslamistorganizationsinIndiahardlyflourished."Berlin,
however,hopedto usepan-IslamicandalsoBengalirevolutionaries
(whodesiredimmediateindependenceforIndiabyoverthrowing
Britishrule,violentlyifneedbe), toGermany'sadvantage.
AttheendofAugust1914,OppenheimgatheredtogetherinBerlin
anIndianIndependenceCommittee.ItincludedIndianrevolution-
arieswillingtocollaboratewithGermanyinthepotentiallydanger-
ousworkofinstigatinganti-BritishinsurgencyinIndia.TheGer-
mansrecruitedtwogroupsofIndians:studentslivinginBerlinand
otheruniversitytownswhosympathizedwithGermanyinthewar;
andextremistsfromBengalandtheGhadr(Mutiny)party,alargely
SikhmovementwithwidespreadsupportamongtheemigrantIn-
diancommunitiesofwesternNorthAmericaandEastAsia."
Before 1914 theBengalnationalistshadbitterlyopposedBritish
ruleinIndia,withviolenceandterrorism;anumberofnationalist