War by Revolution. Germany and Great Britain in the Middle East in the Era of World War I

114 WARBYREVOLUTION

GrafWolff-MetternichzurGracht,disapprovedmuchmorestrongly
oftheTurkishpolicy,whichproducedbitterconflictswiththeTurks.
StillotherGermans,particularlyJohannesLepsius,thepresidentof
theGerman-ArmenianSociety,whopossessedgoodconnectionswith
theforeignministryandwhovisitedTurkeyduringJulyandAugust,
protestedtheTurkishpolicytotheministry.ButZimmermannand
otherministryofficials downplayedtheinformation,censored(as
noted)theissueinthepress,andblamedthepersecutionontheAr-
meniansandtheAllies?'
SomeGermaneyewitnessestotheatrocitiesagainsttheArmenians
claimedthatbothTurksandArmenianseitherblamedthehorrors
ontheGermansorbelievedthelatterapprovedofthem."British
intelligencesourcesintheMiddleEastinparticularemphasizedthat
numerousGermanofficialsinTurkey,includingOppenheim,ap-
provedofandincitedtheOttomanattackontheArmenians.Ger-
manpan-Islamicpropaganda,theBritishmaintained,inflamedanti-
ChristianfeelingsandattacksontheArmeniansandassertedthat
theGermanemperorandhisagentsinTurkeyhadconvertedto Is-
lam."
Theevidenceindicates,however,thatthisincitementwas infact
thedespicableactofindividualfanatics,nottheresultofofficial
Germanpolicy.Suchactionsmayexplain,however,whynumerous
Turksintheprovincesassertedthatthepersecutionsoriginatedwith
theGermansandalso whytheGermangovernmentobjectedtothe
Turkishclaims.>Mostunfortunately,theGermansrespondeddur-
ing 1915 and 1916 withasimilarcombinationofdisregardandenthu-
siasmforthepersecutionbyJemalPasha,theTurkishgovernorand
commanderoftheFourthArmy,ofArabnationalistsinSyria."
AmongMuslims,Oppenheim'smissiontotheOttomanEmpire
didlittleifanythingtokindletheirinterestintheholywar. His pres-
ence inTurkeyratherincreasedthetensionthatalreadyexistedbe-
tweenlocalTurkishandGermanofficials.WhiletheGermansbe-
lievedOppenheim'smeetingwithFaysalhadachievedacoupin
Turkish-Arabrelations,EnverPasha,possiblyfearingthattheGer-
manswerebecomingtoofriendlywithboththeTurksandArabs,
complainedsharplyabouttheGermanpropagandaandotheractivi-
ties inTurkey.Furthermore,EnverrejectedGermanproposalstobribe