War by Revolution. Germany and Great Britain in the Middle East in the Era of World War I

THEGERMANTHREATONTHEPERIPHERY 131

andtopressurethegovernmentinTeherantojointheCentralPow-
ers inthewar,theagentsdistributedpropagandaandgeneroussums
ofmoney.TheyplayedontheanimosityofthepeopletowardBritish
andRussiancontrolofthecountryandcalledonPersianstojointhe
jihadagainsttheAllies.ReportsfromtheGermansin Persia, how-
ever,soonarrivedattheembassyinConstantinople,decryinghow
thearmedTurkishincursionsintowesternPersiahadseverelydam-
agedattemptstomobilizeShiitesupportforthejihad."
InsouthernPersiatheBritishnearlycapturedWassmusstwice,
onceinShushtarinFebruaryandamonthlateratBehbehan;inthe
latterincidentWassmussbarelyescaped,leavingbehindmuchofhis
baggage,includingaGermancodebook.ItfellintoBritishhands
andin 1917 assistedBritainindecipheringtheinfamousZimmermann
telegram."
TheBritishhadbetterluckinseizingotherGermansinthearea.
TheycapturedDr.TheodorLenders,aGermanphysicianwhobe-
longedtoWassmuss'sparty,anduponoccupyingtheGermancon-
sulateinBushiretheycaughttheconsul,HelmuthListemann,as well.
Furthermore,documentsfoundattheconsulateprovidedtheBrit-
ishwithinformationonGermany'snumerousoperationsin Persia,
includingitsagents'exhortationstothepredominantlyShiitetribes
tojointheholywaragainstBritainandRussia,as well asonitsplans
forAfghanistan.BritainimmediatelyprotestedtotheTeherangov-
ernmentwhatittermedGermany'sviolationofPersianneutrality."
WassmussparticularlyconcernedtheBritish;theGovernmentofIn-
diaaccusedhim"oftryingtostirupthepeopleofArabistantojoin
in a Holy WaragainsttheBrirish.t'"
Thesmall KleinexpeditionincludedseveralGermanarchaeologists-
Preusser,Bachmann,andLuhrs-swithextensiveknowledgeofMeso-
potamia.Itformedbothanexampleofandamajorexceptionto
Germany'spolicytowardPersia,whichhadbecomeincreasinglyin-
dependentoftheTurks.Ononehand,Klein'sattemptduringhis
journeytoBaghdadduringJanuary 1915 topersuadeShiitereligious
leadersintheholycitiesofKarbalaandNajaftojoinwiththeirrivals
inthefaith,theSunnis,inthejihadagainsttheAllies,producedlittle
genuineShiite-Sunniunity.Insteaditservedmainlytoangerthe
Turks,whoresentedGermaninterferenceinreligiousissues.>Onthe