War by Revolution. Germany and Great Britain in the Middle East in the Era of World War I

198 WARBYREVOLUTION

andfromfallingcompletelyintothecampoftherespectiveenemy.
During 1915 theSwissauthoritiesbrokeupthepoorlyoperatedBrit-
ishintelligencenetwork,whereuponitwassteadilyrebuiltduring
theensuingyeararoundthenovelistW.SomersetMaughamandof-
ficials in Geneva."?Ontheotherside, inMarch 1916 theSwiss ar-
restedbrieflytheheadofGermancivilianintelligenceinthecountry,
HeinrichJacoby,as hereturnedtoGermany.ByNovemberboththe
FrenchandSwisshadbegunclosinginonJacobyandhis spyring,
whichincludedtwoArmeniansandanIrishjournalist.'>Someof
thedutiesofJacoby'sgroupinvolvedspyingonTurkishofficials like
Zia Bey,theconsulgeneralin Geneva,andonFuadSelim,theminis-
ter;theGermanssuspectedbothofties totheAlliesandtheTurkish
oppositionparty.'?
NoOrientalinSwitzerland,however,attractedmoreattentionfrom
boththeBritishandGermansthandidtheex-khediveofEgypt, Abbas
Hilmi.Hehadlived inSwitzerlandsincethesummerof1915,and
bothsidescontinuedtocourthimto keephimfromjoiningtheother.
TheBritishnegotiatedsporadicallywiththeex-khediveduringthe
summerandfallof1916,hopingtopersuadehimtorenounceoffi-
cially hisclaimtotheEgyptianthrone.'>AlthoughGermanyreceived
reportsthatAbbasHilmiwasunhappywiththeReichandintended
toabdicatehisthrone,Zimmermann,asunder-secretaryofstatein
theforeignministry,concludedthat"itwouldnotbe clevertolet
himfallcompletelyandpushhimintothearmsofEngland.'?»
WhentheArabrevolteruptedinjune,AbbasHilmiangrilyblamed
theYoungTurkleaders,EnverPashaandJemalPasha,fortheupris-
ingandattemptedunsuccessfullytosendanenvoyto thesharif
throughAustria>Thefeelingsoftheex-khedivereachedTschirschky,
theGermanministerinVienna,whoreportedthemtoJagow.Said
Tschirschky,"Hilmiforeseesa very severe crisis fortheentireTurk-
ishempire.Ifthesultanisstrippedofhishonorascaliph,theTurk-
ishempirewillpossessnoconnectinglink."135
AlthoughtheGermansandYoungTurksdifferedintheirinitial
responsestothesharif'srevolt,theybothneverthelessappliedpres-
sureonAbbasHilmitoreturntoConstantinopleanddeclarehis loy-
altytothePorte.SomeintheGermanforeignministry,including
Wesendonk,believedthattheex-khedivehadassistedHusaynin un-