- McKale, "Weltpolitik,"198-99;Vatikiotis,21O-n, 216-18;Hourani,Arabic
Thought,170-82,193-209;andTignor,291-97.
26.MarschallvonBiebersteintoBethmannHollweg,4 Jan. 1910,doc. no. 9989,
Die GrossePolitikdetEuropiiischenKabinetteIS7I-I9I4.SammlungderDiplo-
matischenAktetidesAuswiittigetiAmtes[hereafterGP]'ed.JohannesLepsius,Albrecht
MendelssohnBartholdy,FriedrichThimme,2]:6n;LukaszHirszowicz,"TheSultan
andtheKhedive, 1892-1908,"MiddleEasternStudies 8 (1972):303-6;JamesJankowski,
"EgyptandEarly ArabNationalism,1908-1922," inTheOriginsofArabNationalism,
ed.RashidKhalidi,LisaAnderson,MuhammadMuslih,andReeva S.Simon,246-47;
IsraelGershoniandJamesP.Jankowski,Egypt, IslamandtheArabs: The Search for
EgyptianNationhood,I90o-I930,18-19; ElieKedourie,ArabicPoliticalMemoirsand
OtherStudies,107-III;PhilipS.Khoury,UrbanNotablesandArabNationalism:The
PoliticsofDamascus,IS6o-I920,62;andVatikiotis,218-19.Anotherwitnesstothe
khedive'smuch-publicizedIslamicpracticeswasanAmericanofficerwhohadvisited
EgyptbeforeWorldWar I;noteMilitaryHistoryInstitute,U'S,ArmyWar College,
CarlisleBarracks,Pa./EdwardDavisPapers/book4, p. 104.
27.Muller,195;Cromerto FO, 12Apr. 1906,PRO/FO371/65/12624;andBernstorff
to Bulow, 30 May 1908, NARA/T-137/32/0102-03.
28.AlfredvonKiderlen-Wachter(Germanforeignsecretary)toWilhelmII, 24Sept.
19n, doc. no. 10830,GP,30:49-50;BernstorfftoBulow, 26 Apr. 1907,NARA/T-137/28/
0213-14;andBernstorffto Bulow, n Feb., 30 May,IJuly,and 17 Nov. 1908, NARA/T-
137/32/0069,0102-04,orro-rz, 0138-40.
29.Oppenheimto Bulow, 19 Dec. 1908and12Feb. 1909,NARA/T-137/28/0306-07,
03 09-10.
30.Therevolution,whichbeganinMacedonia,forcedAbdul-Hamidtorestore
the 1876constitutionandrecalltheparliament,whichhadbeendissolvedin 1877.
TheYoungTurkmovementhademergedinthe1880sandspreadparticularlyamong
intellectualsandyoungerarmyofficers. SeeFerozAhmad,TheYoungTurks: The
CommitteeofUnionandPress inTurkishPolitics,I90S-I9I4,chapterI;Ernest
EdmondsonRamsaur,Jr.,TheYoungTurks:PreludetotheRevolutionofI90S;Lord
Kinross,TheOttomanCenturies: The RiseandFalloftheTurkishEmpire, 572-76;
andHourani,Historyofthe Arab Peoples,281.
31.Ahmad,YoungTurks,24-91;andc.].LoweandM.L.Dockrill,The Mirageof
Power,vol.I,BritishForeign Policy,I902-I4,80-86.Austria-Hungaryhadcompleted
itsannexationoftheOttomanprovincesofBosniaandHerzegovinaduringthe
Bosniancrisis,andRussiathreatenedtosecurechangesin its favor intheOttoman
administrationoftheBlack Seastraits.Accordingtopreviousinternationaltreaties,
thestraitswereopentocommercialnavigationbutclosedto allnon-Turkishwar-
ships.AlsoduringtheBosniancrisis,BulgariadeclareditsindependencefromTur-
key,andCreteproclaimeditsdecisiontounitewithGreece.
32.Curiously,undertheguidanceofLowtherandthedragomanattheembassy,
GeraldFitzmaurice,BritishofficialsviewedtheYoungTurksasinfluencedby Free-
masonsandJewsengagedin aconspiracytoimposeontheOttomanEmpireanalien
systemofideas.NoteFromkin,41-44;andYapp, 183-84.
33.Heller,34-37· In reality,accordingtoLandau,73-74,86-88,beforeWorldWar
Ipan-IslamismenjoyedonlylukewarmsupportfromtheYoungTurks.Above all,
michael s
(Michael S)
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