they wereuneasyaboutasupra-nationalideologylikepan-Islamismin an ageofsurg-
ingnationalisms,includingtheirown.
34.QuotedinHeller,39.
35.Ibid.,39-40;andtheprewarviewstowardpan-Islamismdetailedin SirArthur
Hirtzel(politicalsecretaryin theIndiaOffice[hereafterIOD,"TheWarwithTurkey:
MemorandumbyPoliticalDepartment,IndiaOffice," 25May1916,PRO/FO371/2778/
13 0553.
36.Heller,39-40.MostMuslims,includingtheTurks,wereSunnis,whofollowed
theSunna,ortraditionsoftheProphetMuhammad,andwhoacceptedtheorthodox
successorsorcaliphstoMuhammad.TheShiitesclaimedthatthedivinelyguided
leadersofIslamdescendedfromAliibnAbiTalib,Muhammad'scousinandhus-
bandofhisdaughterFatima,andfatheroftheProphet'sonlygrandchild.Although
ShiiteIslamwasmuchthesameinpracticeasSunniorthodoxIslam,Shiitejurists
qualifiedtointerpretIslamiclaw, theSharia,heldgreaterpowerandcouldchange
theapplicationsofthelaw asspokesmenofAli. Brief,butuseful,definitionsare in
Ovendale,221-23.
37.Ahmad,YoungTurks,153.
38.Thedetailsare inHermannCountvonHatzfeldt(Germanconsulgeneralin
Cairo)toBethmannHollweg,15Nov. 19II, NARA/T-137/28/0456-58. Also seeAhmad,
YoungTurks,153;andKhalidi,BritishPolicy,234,whichnotesthatthe Arabdissatis-
factionwiththeOttomandefeatin Libya wasreportedextensivelybyBritishconsuls
in Syria.
- Yapp,175·
40.Hirszowicz,"Sultanandthe Khedive,"303-6;]ankowski,"EgyptandEarly Arab
Nationalism,"246-47;Kedourie,Arabic PoliticalMemoirs,I07-II1;andKhoury,62.
- Amultitudeofstudiesexistsonthissubject.Thefirsthistorical-scholarly
treatmentwasGeorgeAntonius,The ArabAwakening:TheStoryofthe Arab Na-
tionalMovement.ItarguedthatbeforeWorldWar IArabsofdifferingorigininthe
OttomanEmpirehad,becauseoftherediscoveryofArabicculture,resolvedto rec-
reateasocietyinwhichArabscouldlivetogetherandrulethemselves.Areformof
theempirethatwouldenableArabstocontinuelivingin it wasimpossible.Subse-
quenthistorianshaveattackedthisview,arguingthatbefore 1914 mostArabna-
tionalistssoughtsomeformofinfluenceorautonomywithintheempire.An excel-
lentanalysisofthedifferinginterpretationsisAlbertHourani,"TheArabAwakening
FortyYearsAfter,"inStudiesin Arab History: TheAntoniusLectures,I978-87,ed.
DerekHopwood,21-40.
42.TheseissuesarecoveredextensivelyinDawn,FromOttomanismtoArabism,
57-58; ElieKedourie,EnglandandtheMiddleEast: TheDestructionoftheOttoman
Empire,chapters1-2; Zeine N. Zeine,TheEmergenceofArabNationalism:With a
BackgroundStudyofArab-TurkishRelationsin the Near East,72-IQO;Khoury,54-
72;Antonius,chapters4-6;Gottlieb,48-51;Anderson,EasternQuestion,269-3°4;
Hourani,"TheArabAwakeningFortyYears After," 28-32;andthenumerousexcel-
lentarticlesinThe OriginsofArabNationalism,ed.RashidKhalidi,LisaAnderson,
MuhammadMuslih,andReeva S.Simon.
43.ThisisparticularlystressedbyMahmoudHaddad,"IraqBeforeWorldWar I:
A CaseofAnti-EuropeanArabOttomanism,"inTheOriginsofArabNationalism,
ed.RashidKhalidi,LisaAnderson,MuhammadMuslih,andReeva S.Simon,120-
