I04 EARLY CHOSON DYN ASTY
sian in 1643 when he was appointed chief state councilor, he maintained con-
trol over it by creating the new, conCUlTent post of supreme commissioner (Tojejo)
for the Royal Division. Although unable to eliminate the anti-Manchu Yi Sibaek,
who retained Injo's favor, Kim did succeed in marrying his grandson to lnjo's
daughter. When Grand Prince Pongnim ascended the throne in 1649 (posthu-
mous title, Hyojong), Kim was able to gain control over the Defense Command
at Namhan fort and the Anti-Manchu Division of Kyonggi Province as well,25
Tn the years from the second Manchu invasion in 1637 to Tnjo's death in 1649,
the major army divisions, capital guards, and garrisons became the spoils of pol-
itics. The atmosphere had become even more poisoned by charges of treason
and collaboration with the hated Manchus, the cruel execution of Sim Kiwon,
the poisoning of Crown Prince Sohyon, and the execution of his princess and
her relatives in the Kang family. While anti-Manchu sentiment burned in the
hearts of many officials and scholars, they could but gnash their teeth in frus-
tration as the Manchu hard-line policy of Emperor T'ai-tsung and Prince-Regent
Dorgon kept them at heel and kept the cooperative Kim Chajom in a strong posi-
tion at court.
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION AND TAXATION
Effects of Hideyoshi's Invasions
Tax revenues and reserves were becoming a problem even before Hideyoshi's
invasion of Korea in 1592. In Chungjong's reign (I 5 06-44), the government
held 2,030,000 som in reserve, but by the time of Hideyoshi's invasion in 1592,
that figure had dropped to 500,000 S0I11.^26 Then when the Japanese invasions
occurred (1592-98), the scorched earth policy of the Japanese left the country
devastated and the agricultural economy in shambles. In 1592. there were 1.5
to 1.7 million kyol ofland registered, although not all of it was cultivated and
taxed, but in the first survey after the war in 1601, only 300,000 kyol of culti-
vated, tax-paying land was found. That figure of cultivated land almost doubled
to 541,000 kyol by 161 I, and by the national cadastral survey of 1634, the amount
of registered land (including uncultivated land but excluding P'yong'an Province)
had increased to 1,246,310 kyol. Though recovery continued, by the eighteenth
century it never increased beyond 1 -45 million kyoi, of which about 800,000
kyol was cultivated and tax-paying.^27 Since revenues from the land tax rate had
been reduced to the lowest of the variable schedules of King Sejong's kongbop
law of 1444, and the government wanted to keep taxes low to help the peasants
recover from the destruction of the war, it was prevented from increasing its
revenues by raising the rate.
The government, therefore, had to devise ad hoc measures to provide rev-
enues for certain institutions and agencies instead of funding all costs from the
central treasury. It used the traditional institution of military colonies (tunjon)
initially to provide revenues for military units and soldiers, and it applied this