396 MILITARY REFORMCh'ing envoys, Hyojong had to abandon plans for rapid replacement of worn-
out weapons. Recruitment and training of troops were hampered by the same
problems described by Yu Hyongwon in his book (see later), training and firing
practice had to be conducted out of sight of Ch'ing envoys, and grain rations
had to be diverted to famine relief. In short, initial attempts to rebuild the mil-
itary between 1649 and 165 I were almost completely frustrated.'
Even assuming a successful rearmament policy, Korean forces would have
had no chance at all against the Manchus after the conquest of China because
the Manchus then had access to the manpower of all her conquered territories.
Loyalty to the Ming was an admirable sentiment, but the obligation had been
removed for all practical purpose by Ming capitulation. Continuing discussion
at court of rearming to attack the Manchus was understandable as an act of cathar-
sis, but it was hardly practical. Since there were no threats of attack from Japan
or elsewhere, Hyojong's "attack the North" (pukpol) policy might be deemed,
in that situation, a needless burden imposed on the Korean people.
Despite Manchu surveillance, Hyojong was determined to pursue his military
expansion policy, but he had to face a number of problems that had plagued the
military system for years. He was less interested, however, in reform than in expan-
sion of his army and its training. As a result, when Minister of War Pak So made
five recommendations for reform early in 1652, he did not respond positively to
all requests. To prevent unsalaried commanders of local naval garrisons from
dunning marines (sugun) for payments of cloth and forcing them to abandon
their homes to evade the levies, he suggested that the government provide these
officers with stipends. To remove the difficulty imposed on peasants living inland
from serving as marines at coastal duty stations, he asked that their duties be
switched to coastal residents instead. To prevent peasants from running away
from home and commending themselves to powerful landlords to escape mili-
tary registration, he recommended that local officials should register everyone
wherever they happened to reside (rather than at their original domicile), pun-
ish landlords for hiding peasants from registration, prohibit unauthorized migr~
tion and movement by peasants from their villages, compile accurate household
registers (hojOk), and issue household tallies (hop 'ae) as a basis for assessing
service. To stop the high runaway rate by both commoners and government ser-
vice slaves who were trying to escape military duty and the practice of officials
shifting their service obligations to neighbors and relatives, or seizing the land
and houses of the runaways and selling them off, Pak So requested that Hyojong
make several changes. He asked Hyojong to guarantee the return of the prop-
erty of nmaways, cancel their delinquent cloth taxes and criminal charges for
service or tax evasion, and exempt the current year's personal service (or slave
tribute), as an inducement for them to return home and register for scrvice. 4
The Border Defense Command recommended that in Ch'ungch'ong and
Cholla provinces various funds be taken to provide monthly salaries for coastal
naval ganison commanders to alleviate the situation of marines, but opposed
transferring the locus of their duty because the service duties for marines (sugun,