- chapter 18: Political systems and law –
The ancient historians did not record where the Fanum Voltumnae was located but
an important clue can potentially be found in a rescript from the Constantinian period
from Spello that refers to the festival occurring “aput Vulsinios” (near Volsinii) according
to ancient custom (consuetudo prisca).^100 The poet Propertius is helpful here, as well, as he
describes the god Vertumnus abandoning his Volsiniian fi res in favor of Rome.^101 A likely
candidate has emerged at Campo della Fiera, to the west of modern Orvieto (see Chapter
31).^102 Campo della Fiera is a natural crossroads at the foot of Volsinii where the roads
connecting the Tiber River valley, the Tyrrhenian Sea, Chiusi and Arezzo converge. The
name of the site itself, Italian for the “fairgrounds fi eld,” is also revealing, and we know
that the site was used as a fairground into the Middle Ages. In addition, recent excavations
have revealed a sacred site of long duration, with continuous activity occurring from the
sixth century bce into the sixteenth century.
The attendees of the Fanum Voltumnae were the residents of the 12 city-states of Etruria
(duodecim populi Etruriae), although sometimes they are referred to as the 15 peoples. The
number of 12 principal cities is canonical, and is matched by other reputed sets of 12
affi liated Etruscan cities, located to the north of Etruria in the Po Valley and to the south
in Campania. The number 12 also matches that of the member city-states of the Ionian
League.^103 Most importantly, while many of the long-standing members of the Fanum
Voltumnae can be guessed (Tarquinia, Caere, Chiusi, etc.), no ancient author specifi cally
lists them in toto; additionally, the member city-states probably changed over time. To
this end, Servius mentioned specifi cally that Populonia was founded too late to be a
member of the league.^104 Similarly the Faliscans and Capenates were almost certainly not
a part of this league, but they were still received in an audience of 397 bce when they
asked for help for Veii (because of their position in relation to Rome) and ultimately for
themselves.^105 Twelve representatives presided over the ceremonies and they elected a
priest among themselves.^106 In 403 bce, before Veii’s fi nal king fell into disfavor with the
other Etruscans for preserving the monarchy, he fi rst withdrew the actors he had sponsored
for the communal games, once he had lost the nomination for this very priesthood.^107
One of the most lingering questions about the Etruscan League is whether it could have
had a federal, military and political character. Dionysius of Halicarnassus believed that it
could, and described a Tyrrhenian custom wherein each of the 12 cities would contribute
a fasces, all of which would be handed over to the leader of a joint Etruscan military
expedition.^108 He discusses this custom in the context of a series of protracted campaigns
between the Latins and Etruscans against Tarquinius Priscus. At fi rst, a confederation of
only the northern cities (Chiusi, Arezzo, Volterra, Roselle, and Vetulonia) fought against
Rome, but soon after, any city that does not join the war is threatened with exclusion
from the league.^109
At the end of the sixth century bce, even the status of one of Etruria’s most famous
kings is muddled in the sources. Livy, Dionysius and Plutarch call Porsenna the king of
Chiusi,^110 but (if it is the same personage) he is called the king of Volsinii by Pliny the
Elder at one point,^111 and the king of Etruria elsewhere by Pliny the Elder and Florus.^112
It may be that in the course of Porsenna’s military campaigns, he had authority over
more than just the people of Chiusi. Even so, these episodes may just represent ad hoc
alliances in the case of a perceived regional threat. We know so little from the Etruscans
themselves about their military history, but even from the Elogia Tarquiniensia, where
Tarquinia is involved against Caere and later Arezzo, we see that the Etruscan cities were
probably more often fi ghting against each other than working together on a regular basis.