- Nancy T. de Grummond –
is apparently identical with one called the Manzāzu, “Presence,” in Babylonian lore.^72
Another line on the lower left seems to be the same as the Babylonian Padānu (“Path”).
These same two marks may be identifi ed on the left lobe of the Piacenza liver (in the
circle in the middle is the “Presence” and in cell 32, belonging to Letha, on the far left
is the “Path”).^73 But the Etruscan system of identifying the gods seems to have become
extremely elaborate, involving as it did a multitude of deities, whereas Near Eastern
extispicy was directed mainly at Shamash, the sun god, and Adad, the storm god.^74
Another way in which the Etruscan and Near Eastern systems were alike was in the
use of formulas with protasis (“If...”) and apodosis (“then....”).^75 The clearest Etruscan
examples occur in the brontoscopic calendar of Nigidius Figulus, which claimed the
authority of Tages. Here are several examples from the month of October:
Oct. 1. If it thunders, it threatens a corrupt tyrant over the affairs of state.
Oct. 3. If it thunders, it signifi es hurricanes and disturbances by which the trees will be
overturned; there will be a great disruption in the affairs of common people.
Oct. 4. If it thunders, the lower classes will have the upper hand over their betters, and
the mildness of the air will be healthy.
Oct. 5. If it thunders, there will be a surplus of all the necessities excepting grain.
Oct. 6. If it thunders, appearance of future abundance, yet harvest will be less plentiful
and autumn practically empty of fruit.
Oct. 8. If it thunders, an earthquake with roaring is to be expected.
Oct. 10. If it thunders, it signifi es the downfall of a praiseworthy man.^76
The predictions are specifi c and vary greatly in their concerns. Obviously many details
relate especially to certain individuals in political power, while others may affect a whole
populace. Matters of weather, health and agriculture occur repeatedly.^77 If we look at the
records of liver divination noted by Roman writers as coming from Etruscan haruspices,
there are many further comparanda, basically refl ecting a formula of “if ....then...”
The “head” of the liver, the caput iecoris (in modern scientifi c terminology, the processus
caudatus) was always a conspicuous and signifi cant element, and there are several reports
on its nature that demonstrate clearly how a liver might be interpreted with protasis and
apodosis. If the head was absent this was a negative sign, but if the head was enlarged this
was a positive indication.^78 If the head was doubled this could be again a sign of strength
according to one interpretation.^79 But another priest at another time might take it as a
negative sign, because it could signal civil confl ict between two competing generals.^80
Other parts of the liver might have a narrower context for a conditional interpretation:
the gall bladder had a particular connection with the god Neptune and with water (the
Etruscan name Nethuns is written on the gall bladder of the Piacenza liver). Augustus
found a double gall bladder in the victim on the day of his naval victory at Actium.^81
The 16 divisions around the edges of the liver corresponded with the 16 divisions of
the heavens, and these in turn were keyed to compass points. The mapping of the heavens
was essential for interpreting lightning, which began with determining which of the gods
who hurled lightning (there were nine in all) may have sent a particular bolt. Here, as on
the liver, the Etruscans manifested the approach to different kinds of omens in the way in
which they carefully demarcated the areas where they sought the omen. The laying out of
a zone in the air, on the ground, or underground, known as a templum in Latin,^82 probably
originated within the Etruscan belief system, characterized by a virtual obsession with