both close by and distant, as well as the character and meaning of imagery in different
communities. Seals and their impressions are also critical evidence for establishing
relative chronological position of archaeological contexts because every period had
unique ways of engraving seals.
Throughout the history of their use, seals were first and foremost tools in the
administration of economic and judicial matters. Closely aligned with cuneiform
writing for the three millennia of their use, cylinder seals spread together with the script
to many parts of the Near East and were adopted and adapted to local customs and
requirements. The script carried the authority of the word, and the impression of the
seal authenticated the message as genuine. Seals were never used to “decorate” a tablet
or a clay lock. Even when they were impressed on ceramic jars, a practice concentrated
in the piedmont zone surrounding Sumer, their function was not decorative (Mazzoni
1993 ). But seals also were not just administrative tools. They also carried magical or
amuletic meaning, they served as jewelry or markers of status, and they were frequently
deposited in sacred spaces as votive objects. But their association with identity, power
and authority is what established their centrality and longevity in cuneiform cultures.
Given the original and enduring function of seals as vehicle of authority and legitimacy,
it is necessary to think about the kinds of marks, both images and texts, that were
engraved on their surface not simply as reflections of local styles and fashion but rather
as carriers of culturally salient meaning. The changes that we see in the seal designs
directly reflect changing messages central to the smooth functioning of the society.
Because of the fragmentary and partial nature of our evidence, we can often only
observe but not explain the meaning or precise motivations for the changes. But on
occasion radical or subtle changes can be correlated with other evidence to provide
insight into the legitimizing power of the imagery.
Seals are commonly understood as the equivalent to the personal signature of
modern times, that is as a mark made by an individual signifying the acceptance of an
obligation, or a personal recognition by the owner of the seal of the accuracy of the
content of a written document, or when applied to a commodity, authorizing the
dispersal or receipt or integrity of such commodity. While the analogy to the modern
signature is broadly correct beginning with the Ur III period, our understanding of the
message carried on the seals used in earlier periods cannot be limited to this modern
equivalency. In different periods, different patterns of use suggest that there was a
–– Holly Pittman ––Figure 16.1
Drawing of an ancient clay
jar stopper impressed
multiple times with a
stamp seal. From Sabi
Abyad (after Duistermaat
1986 : 393 : 16. 5. 14 : 1 )