guaranteed justice and they regulated human life from the cradle to the grave and
beyond. The gods determined the sˇimtu‘fate’ of a human, but at the same time their
own fate was determined. The principle that determined the force of destiny in Meso-
potamia did not have a special name and thus was not personified, but it may be
seen as having been administered via the social hierarchical order. In the world of
the gods the ‘Tablets of Destiny’ were kept by the highest deity: it was symbolic of
his leading position. These Tablets of Destiny represent power: a popular mytho-
logical theme was the scenario of an evil force getting hold of these tablets which
the deity had to fight off in order to regain custody. The Tablets of Destiny imply
that the fate of gods was also variable and that the holder of these tablets represented
the function of upholding order (Dalley 2000 : 254 ff.: Enuma elish-myth v–vii; 218 :
Anzû-myth iii).
The struggle for the top position among the gods was typically limited to those
of male sex, but goddesses could also rise in the hierarchy, mainly by becoming the
beloved wife of a chief god, as happened to Ishtar in literary tradition (Lambert 1967 ;
Hrusˇka 1969 ). Myths that stress the acquisition of ultimate power of the chief deity
- see the case of Ninurta/Marduk in the beginning of the first millennium (cf. Oshima
in this volume) – are probably the reflection of a parallel change in the human world,
such as the absorption of the religious traditions of a neighbouring people or a reorgan-
isation after a period of political chaos.
The structure of the divine world is based upon the human world, and the gods
also act not unlike humans. Gods can have offspring, goddesses can and do give birth
as we learn in the myth of creation Enuma Elish. But although the world of the gods
was conceived of in analogy to that of the humans, it was a much better world. Thus,
the gods were healthy through the consumption of food that they received in the
form of offerings. Food suitable for offerings had to be luxurious: meat, flour, cakes
and beer, although it was also possible to donate symbolic food, such as an incense
offering. Usually gods were thought of as being handsome, healthy, vigorous adults.
The only exceptions were some deities that lived in the underworld, such as Ereshkigal
and Nergal, that were said to be unattractive or bald and limping (Hutter 1995 : 29 ,
38 ). Only one deity suffered a temporary death, namely the goddess Inanna-Ishtar in
her visit to the underworld (Hutter 1995 : 123 – 124 and passim; Katz 1993 : 261 ,
169 – 172 and passim). Gods were, in principle, immortal.
In their exulted realm the gods live in a manner that reflects an ideal version of
the human world. Here reside the deities who are honoured on earth with temples,
personnel and a regular cult to keep them happy. The realm of demons and hybrid
creatures on the other hand may be seen as a negative imprint of life on earth. Those
are confined to the underworld, but are mutating between both worlds, mostly
frightening people out of their wits.
The ideal world of the gods who were honoured and fed in Mesopotamian temple
complexes is also characterised by its division into the male and female gender. This
dual aspect can be seen throughout the divine hierarchy: at the top we find the oldest
or supreme divine couple, followed by lesser figures or offspring and their dependants.
While the hierarchical aspect may be seen as a reflection of the political relations
between the central authority and the chief urban centres, the gender roles of gods
and goddesses also present clues as to ideological principles that govern the relations
between the sexes and the social position of women on earth. In as far as the divine
— The role and function of goddesses in Mesopotamia —