- Chapter Thirty-Seven -
upper class, and occasionally their status (such as king or priest).31 Little is known
about the burial rite associated with early memorials.32 Amongst the early inscribed
stones which appear to represent Christian burial, there are isolated examples
which may mark the position of early cemeteries which are no longer visible, lying
outside but close to existing churchyards. Such early burials in isolated places are
commemorated in poetry such as the 'Stanzas of the Graves' ('The graves which the
rain wets ... Whose grave is on the mountain.').33 Only gradually did burials become
associated with churches, as they gained authority and organization to insist on or
provide for churchyard burial. Cross-marked stones and pillars probably served
different functions - undoubtedly some as grave-markers, or to act as foci of
worship, or to mark out an area of sanctuary. Some stones are clearly meant to lie
flat, above a grave, while others are no more than beach pebbles bearing incised
crosses which may have been placed in or over a grave.
The functions of freestanding crosses were probably complex. In Ireland, the
entrance to a monastery was often marked by a cross, and cemeteries and enclosures
would frequently have focal points marked by a cross or founder's tomb. A
schematic drawing in the Book of Mulling marks a number of crosses inside and
outside concentric circles, with the dedications of some to prophets and evangelists
(recalling the names of some of Iona's crosses), probably to invoke their protection
and power for the monastery. Some crosses may have illustrated the united power of
church and state, and it is likely that they also played a role in the liturgy as stations
for processions, or marking points where Mass was said.
Some monuments record grants of land, achievements or possibly events such as
battles. An early ninth-century cross-slab from Maughold, Isle of Man, is inscribed:
IHS XPSI BRANCUI IHOC AQUAI DIRIVAVIT (' ... Brancui led off water to
this place'), recording his provision of a water supply to the monasterium.
Exceptional is the inscription on the 'Pillar of Eliseg' at Valle Crucis, Powys, which
records and praises the achievements and kinship of Cyngen's great grandfather
Eliseg (' ... who annexed the inheritance of Powys ... throughout nine [years?] from
the power of the English, which he made into a sword-land by fire .. .'). Concenn
(Cyngen ap Cadell, who died in 854) and his great-grandfather Eliseg were kings of
Powys.
The purpose of the Pictish symbol stones remains obscure (see P.765), but Class
II Pictish stones provide evidence for thriving Christian culture. No written records
of Pictish exist to verify the various interpretations placed on the older Class I
symbols, which on Class II stones rarely appear on the front with the cross, being
relegated to the back. The Aberlemno churchyard cross-slab (Tayside) bears a large
cross in low relief, giving it an architectural presence similar to freestanding crosses.
Figural representations on Class III stones, minus symbols, appear subordinate to
the cross, being confined to the decorative panels. While the secular imagery appears
tightly controlled, the patterns frequently mimic fine metalworking techniques seen
on objects adorning both court and altar - one effect being a unifying of church
authority with that of the ruling elite (Driscoll I988: I86).
Inscriptions on later freestanding monuments are commonly set in panels, often
defined by borders. It has been suggested that some were set low down on the shaft
so that they could be conveniently viewed and read when kneeling. It is probable